Exam #1 Flashcards
What are the basic components of a cell?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, extracellular fluid and extracellular matrix
what is the plasma membrane composed of?
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins
What percent of Plasma membrane is made up of lipids?
98%
What percent of the lipids that make up the plasma membrane are phospholipids?
75%
What is the function of cholesterol in a phospholipid?
To hold phospholipids still and stiffen the membrane
What kind of lipids attach to the heads of a phopholipid?
Glycolipid
Phospholipids are nonpolar and polar which makes them what?
Amphipathic
The head of the phospholipid is while the tail is what?
Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
what is tissue fluid also known as?
Interstitial fluid
What is the fluid outside of the cells that includes interstitial fluid?
Extracellular fluid
What is the extracellular matrix?
Space around the outside of the cell adjacent to the plasma membrane
What is the cell theory?
- All cells only arise from cells
- Every living organism is composed of cells
- Cell is the smallest unit of life
The plasma membrane has permeability because of what two things?
Phospholipids and integral proteins
Membrane proteins are also known as what?
Integral proteins
What is the purpose of a channel protein?
Allows for movement of specific substances across the plasma membrane
What are the two types of channel proteins?
A leak channel and a gated channel
what is a leak channel?
a channel that is always open to allow material to pass through continually
what is a gated channel?
A channel that opens and closes under different circumstances
What are the three types of gated channels
Ligand, voltage and mechanical gated
what is a ligand gated channel?
A channel that responds to chemical messengers
what is a voltage gated channel?
Senses a change in potential voltage across the plasma membrane
what is the purpose of a receptor protein?
it binds extracellular substances via Chemical signals by which cell communicate and can enter the target cell
A receptor protein is ____ because it binds on to a unique active site
specific
What is a cell identity marker or recognition protein?
tells which cells belong and which are foreign invaders
what is a cell adhesion protein?
Cells stick to one another and to extracellular material through the membrane
what is a second messenger protein
when a messenger binds to the surface receptor of the cell it may trigger changes within the cell that produce a second messenger in the cytoplasm.
A second messenger protein involves what kind of proteins?
transmembrane and peripheral
what do peripheral proteins help with ?
stability
Carrier proteins are used in what type of transport mechanism?
passive
What do carrier proteins do?
move substances in or out of the cell and its specific
what are the three types of carrier proteins?
- uniport
- cotransport
- countertransport
what is uniport?
Carriers with one type of solute
what is cotransport?
Carriers move two or more solutes through a membrane simultaneously in the same direction via symport
what is counter transport?
carriers move two or more solutes in opposite direction via an antiport
All cells have an antiport called?
Sodium potassium pump which removes sodium ions and brings in potassium ions
Enzyme membrane proteins are also known as what
catalysts
name the types of Passive mechanisms
Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and filtration
What is simple diffusion?
The net movement of molecules or ions DOWN and concentration gradient without the use of a protein carrier
What factors affect diffusion?
- steepness of the gradient
- molecular size
- temperature
- electrical or pressure gradients
Why don’t passive mechanisms require ATP?
The random motions of particles provide energy
what is facilitated diffusion?
Process of transporting a chemical through a cellular membrane down with the aid of a carrier protein that doesn’t use ATP
Facilitated diffusions allows solutes to move in what direction?
Move both ways across the plasma membrane
steroid hormones are ____ which allow them to dissolve through the lipid bilayer
nonpolar/ lipid solutes
Large polar ( non lipid soluble) molecules require what carrier protein?
Glucose
Define osmosis
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
The direction of the net flow during osmosis is determined by what?
water concentration gradient
The sides with a high concentration of solutes have a ____ concentration of water?
lower
How can cells increase the rate of osmosis?
By installing more aquaporins
what is an aquaporin?
channel proteins that allow water to pass more easily
define osmotic pressure
amount if pressure that would have to be applied to one side of a selectively permeable membrane to STOP osmosis
what is reverse osmosis?
process by which a mechanical pressure is applied to one side of the system override osmotic pressure and drive water through a membrane against the concentration gradient
The net movement of water across a membrane will be from a area of ____ sodium to ___ sodium
Lower sodium to higher sodium
What is filtration
using pressure gradient to move substances with the help of a protein carrier.
what is hydrostatic pressure?
Physical force generated by a liquid such as blood pressure
Water follows ____
salt
Define tonicity and list the types
Relative solute concentration of two fluids.
Hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic
Tonicity affects?
the fluid volume and pressure within a cell
Tonicity has the ability to cause ?
osmosis
Define hypotonic
Having a concentration lower of non permeating solutes in the ICF.
Absorbs H20 and swells
Hypotonic has a net __ in cell
net gain in cell
define hypertonic
Having a concentration higher of non permeating solutes in ICF
Cells will lose H20
hypertonic has a net ___ of H20 in the cell
net loss
Define isotonic
total concentration of non permeating solutes is the same as ICF
No change in cell volume or shape
What is the net change of H20 in a isotonic solution?
There is no net loss or gain of water within the cell
NaCl is what percent of which type of solution?
0.9 % of isotonic solution also referred to as normal saline
Active mechanisms consume ____?
ATP
what are the types of Active mechanisms?
Active transport and vesicular
Define active transport
process which carries a substance through a membrane UP the concentration gradient using ATP
ATP supplies energy by transferring a ______ to a transport protein making it _____.
Phosphate and becomes ADP
An active transport protein is a ?
pump which binds solutes transport against chemical gradient
The sodium potassium pump ( one cycle) consumes how many atp? and exchanges what?
Consumes 1 atp and exchanges 3 Na ions for 2 potassium ions
The sodium potassium pump generates what?
The resting membrane potential
What is the resting membrane potential?
Inside of the membrane becomes negatively charged relative to the outside
ATP ———-> ADP + P is an example of what reaction?
Exergonic reaction
What are the functions of the sodium potassium pump?
- secondary active transport
- regulation of cell volume
- maintenance of membrane potential
- heat production
What are the membranous organelles?
Nucleus, mitochondria, small vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex
Name the non-membranous organelles
Ribosomes and centrosomes
what is a proteasome
Gets rid of nonfunctional proteins
What is the function of peroxisomes?
To use molecular oxygen to oxidize organic molecules
where are peroxisomes most abundant?
In the liver and kidney
Purpose of the mitochondria
Site for ATP synthesis
Where specifically is ATP synthesized in the mitochondria?
The cristae
How much ATP is in the Cristae?
36-38 ATP that must have oxygen
The matrix can make how much ATP without oxygen?
two ATP
Define inclusions
any visible object in the cytoplasm of the cell other than an organelle or cytoskeletal element typically is a foreign body
What is the glycocalyx
The outer covering of the cell external to the plasma membrane
its fuzzy
Name the functions of the glycocalyx
protection, cancer defence , transplant compatibility, immunity to infection, cell adhesion, fertilization and embryonic development.
What is purpose of a microvilli?
increase the surface area for absporbtion
describe. glycoprotein
protein with a carbohydrate attached
describe glycolipid
lipid with a carbohydrate attached
The amount of potassium ions will be ___ inside the cell compared to the number of sodium ions.
HIGHER
Define element
Simplest form of matter with unique chemical properties
Each element is defined by what?
an atomic number
what are the major elements found within the body?
O,C, H,N,Ca, P
What are the lesser elements found within the body?
K, Na and S
What is inside the atomic nucleus?
Protons and neutrons
Where are electrons located?
Around the nucleus in electron shells
The # of electrons are equal to the # of ______
Protons
what are valance electrons?
electrons found in the outer most shells
The first electron can have only ___ electrons
2
What are isotopes
Elements with different number of neutrons
Radioisotopes are____
unstable
define radioactivity
is the process of decay
define ionizing radiation
High energy radiation emitted by radioisotopes and ejects electrosn from atoms thus converting atoms to ions
ionizing radiation destroys____ and ___
destroys molecules and produces danger free radical and ions in human tissue
Define physical half life
The time required for 50% if its atoms to decay to more stable isotopes
define biological half life
The time required for 50% of it to disappear from the body
Each element has ____ radioisotopes
at least 1
Define ions
Charged particles with unequal # of protons and electrons
define anion
Gains electrons and acquires a negative charge (-)
Define cation
Loses electrons acquires a positive charge (+)
Ions with opposite charges ______ each other
attract
What are electrolytes?
Substances that ionize in water ( acids,bases or salts) and forms solutions that are capable of conduction electricity
What are free radicals
Unstable, highly reactive particles with an odd # of electrons
define molecule
2 or more atoms united by chemical bond
define a compound
twow or more elements combined
define isomer
identical molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms
define molecular weight
sum of the atomic weights of its atoms
what is a chemical bond
force that holds molecules together or attract 1 molecule to another
what are the types of chemical bonds
ionic,covalent, hydrogen
what is an ionic bond
weak attract between cation and anion
identify a covalent bond
sharing of 1 or more pairs of electrons
what is a non polar covalent bond
electrons are shared equally
what is a polar covalent bond
electrons are shared unequally
what is a hydrogen bond
weak attraction between atoms with a partial negative charge and a partial positive charge
List the order of chemical bonds from strongest to weakest
Covalent, ionic and hydrogen
what is a mixture
substance physically blended but not chemically combined
water is know as the _______ solvent
universal
What is a solution
solutes mixed with 1 or more solvents
colloids are mixtures that are
too large and scatter light particles
define emulsion
suspension of liquid to another
ex: oil and vinegar
Acid is a proton____
donor because it releases H+ in H20
Base is a proton _____
acceptor OH- accepts H+
define pH
acidity measured in terms of molarity of hydrogen ions
a pH of zero is considered what?
Acidic
a pH of 7 is considered what?
neutral
a pH of 14 is considered what?
basic or alkaline
a change from one pH to another is how much?
10 fold change
what is the blood ph range?
7.35-7.45
what is energy?
the capacity to do work
define potential energy
energy contained because of its position
chemical energy is
energy stored in bonds of molecules
define free energy
energy available to do useful work
define kinetic energy
energy of motion and doing work
heat is what type of energy
kinetic because its the energy of molecular motion
define chemical reaction
a covalent bond or ionic bond is formed or broken
define decomposition reaction
large molecules broken into 2 or more smaller molecules
AB——> A+B
define synthesis reaction
2 or more molecules combined to form a larger one
A+B——–> AB
define exchange reaction
2 molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms
AB+CD———> AC+ BD
define reversible reaction
can go in either direction under different circumstances
reversible reaction must follow what law?
the law of mass action, they proceed from reactants in the greater quantity to lesser ones
a reversible reaction exists in what state?
State of equilibrium, the ratio of products to reactants is stable
is a synthesis reaction endergonic or exergonic?
endergonic
is a decomposition reaction endergonic or exergonic?
exergonic
What three things affect reaction rates?
concentration, temperature and catalysts
what is a catalyst?
Catalyst temporarily bind to reactants , hold them in in favorable positions to react and may change shape
define anabolism
energy storing synthesis reaction ( endergonic)
define endergonic
requires energy input
define oxidation
molecules give up electrons and release energy
what is a oxidizing agent
a substance in a redox chemical reaction that gains or “accepts”/”receives” an electron from a reducing agent.
Any substance that oxidizes another substance
oxidizing agent an electron ____
acceptor
define reduction
a molecule gains electrons and energy
when you accept electrons you _____?
reduce.
When you donate an electron this is known as the _____ agent
reducing
REDOX reaction is
the exchange of electrons between reactants
catabolism is
a exergonic reaction meaning it is energy releasing
what is a functional group
Small cluster of atoms that determine the unique properties of a organic molecule
dehydration synthesis
creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers were water molecule is released
hydrolysis
two molecules join into a larger one and eject a a water molecule
how are covalent bonds broken
they are broken by adding an OH to one side of the molecule and a H to the other
What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates
2:1
what is the carbohydrate isomer?
C6,H2,06
1:2:1
are carbohydrates hydrophilic or hydrophobic
hydrophillic
what is the monomer of a carbohydrate?
monosaccharide
give an example of a monosaccharide
glucose or fructose
give an example of a disaccharide
sucrose, lactose, maltose
give an example of polysaccharide
glycogen or starch
what is the function of a lipid
energy, structure and signaling
are lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophobic
monomer of lipids?
fatty acids and glycerol
fatty acids are in a _____ chain
carbon
saturated fatty acids
tightly packed solid @ room temp and single bonds only
unsaturated fatty acid
plant fat that is liquid at room temp and has 1 or more double bonds
phospholipid
major component of a cell mebrane
steroid
cholesterol primarily
cholesterol is arranged in what pattern
ring
what is the most abundant lipid
tryglyceride
what are the monomers of a protein
amino acid
amino acids are made up of what?
amino group ( NH+), carboxyl ( COO-) and r group
what is a peptide
2 or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds
peptide bonds need what element specifically?
nitrogen
how many amino acids are in the body?k
20
what makes up the protein’s structure?
keratin
name the levels of protein structure
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
what is the primary level ( protein)
sequence of amino acids
what is the secondary level of amino acids
Alpha helix or beta pleated sheets shape held together by hydrogen bonds
define tertiary level of protein structure
bending and folding of proteins into globular and fibrous shapes
define quaternary level of protein structure
2 or more poly peptides chains by noncovalent forces such as ionic or hydrogen bonds
define denaturation
conformation change in extreme heat or pH
what is a communication ligand?
chemical messenger released by 1 cell to signal either itself or a different cell
what is the building block of nucleic acid
nucleotide
What are the complementary base pairs of DNA?
AT CG
what are the complementary base pairs of RNA
AU CG
transcription
process of copying DNA sequence into RNA sequence
Transcription is a ____ event
nuclear
in transcription what unwinds the DNA
RNA polymerase
what are the 3 stop codons
uga,uaa,uag
what is the start codon
AUG
define translation
synthesizing a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide
mRNA
brings genetic code to ribosomes
Trna brings amino acids to
ribosomes
translation is a. _____ event
cytoplasmic
enzymes ____ a reactions activation energy
lowers
the suffix ase indicates what
enzymes
all enzymes are what biomolecule?
protein
enzymes are ____ to the substrate
specific
define active site
where substrates bind and reactions takes places
you need _____ for a reaction to occur
the active site
define induced fit
enzymes changes shape slightly when it binds to the substrate resulting in an even tighter fit.
what factors can affect an enzyme
temperature and pH
what are the steps of an enzyme
- substrate enters the active site of enzyme
- becomes the enzyme substrate complex or lock and key model. this is because the enzyme changes shape slightly as the substrate binds
- products leave the active sight and the enzyme is recycled
name the body cavities
ventral and dorsal
what makes up the ventral cavity
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
what makes up the dorsal cavity
the cranial and vertebral cavitiy
what is anatomical position
standing upright, arms by the side with palms facing forwards and feet flat
define homeostasis
state of equilibrium of the internal environment maintained by dynamic process of feedback and regulation
define anatomy
the study of structure
define physiology
the study of functions of the body
what is gross anatomy
examining the external structures of the body
what are the parts of a gross anatomy
inspection,palpation, auscultation, percussion and dissection
inspection is
physical exam or making a clinical DX from surface appearance
palpatation
feeling a structure with the hands
auscultation
listening to natural sounds made by the body
percussion
examiner taps on the body and feels of abnormal resistance and listens to emmitted sounds
percussion abnormalities include
pockets of fluid, air or scary tissue
dissection
examining structure by cutting and separating human body tissue to reveal tissue relationships
define medical imaging
nonsurgical ways of looking into the body
list the type of medical imaging
radiography, ultrasound, mri, pet CT scan
x-ray or radiography
dense tissue , white
CT/ CAT
3d images
Ultrasound US
use of soundwaves
MRI- magnetic resonance imaging
best of soft tissue
Positron emission tomography
metabolic state of tissue
hippocrates
the father of medicine and created the hippocratic oath
aristotle
believed complex structures were built from simpler parts
robert hooke
first tos see and name cells with a compound microscope
antony van leeuwenhoek
invented a simple microscope to look at fabrics at a greater magnification ( 200x)
schledidan and schwanna
concluded that all organisms are composed of cells. creators of the cell theory
william harvey
discovered circulation
what parts of a experimental design ensures objective and reliable results
sample size, controls, accountable for psychosomatic effects, avoid experimenter’s bias, statistical testing and peer review
sample size
of subjects in a study
controis
constraints that the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure each subject has the same conditions
control group
group that doesnt recieve the zperimental trewatment
psychosomatic
effects ona. subjects state of mind of their physiology
placebo
substance w/o significant physiological effect on the body
statistical testing
provides statement of probability that the treatment was effective
peer review
Critical evaluation by experts in the field
inductive
set of empirical observations, seeking patterns. and theorizing about the patterns. Can be falsifiable using a test on observable data
hypotheticdeductive
asking a question and creating a hypothesis
theory
explanatory statement or set of statement derived from facts, laws and confirmed hypothesis
law of nature
generalization about the predictions because of the way matter and energy behave
natural selection
the process by which individuals with certain heritable traits tend to produce more surviving offspring than individuals without those traits
evolution
change in populations over a period of time
adaptation
any heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual with that trait compared to individuals without it in a particular environment
levels of organization
chemical,cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal level
what are the defining characteristics of life
organization, metabolism, cellular composition`, development( growth and differentiation ) responsiveness, reproduction and evolution
what is a positive feedback mechanism
amplification of the stimuli changes
what is a negative feed back loop
senses a change and activates a mechanism to negate or reverse it
what are the parts of a neg feedback loop
receptor, integrating center, and effector
receptor
senses change and sends info to the integrating center
integrating center
compares the info received from the receptor to the normal levels for the body then sends the appropriate response to the effector
effector
carries out the final corrective action
list the organ systems
respiratory, skeletal, muscular, endocrine, lymphatic, integumentary, reproductive, urinary, cardiovascular, nervous , digestive
integumentary system function and organs
protection, regulates temperature and prevents water loss, skin, hair nails
digestive system organs and function
breaks down food into substances that cells can absorb
mouth, stomach, liver, intestines
lymphatic system function and organs
returns fluid to blood and defends against pathogens
thymus, lymph node
respiratory system function and organs
removes CO2 from the body anbd delivers O2 to blood
nasal passage, trahea, lungs
urinary system function and organs
controls H20 balance and removes waste from blood and excretes it
urinary bladder, kidney
reproductive system organs and function
M: produce sex hormones and deliver gamete to female
F: produce sex hormones and support embry, produce milk
mammary glands, uterus, epididymis
skeletal system function and organs
support body and enables movement with the help of the muscular system
bones, joints, cartilage
muscular system function and organs
skeletal muscles and tendons
nervous system function and organs
detects and processes sensory information and activates the body’s response
brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
endocrine system function and organs
secretes hormones that regulate body processes
pancrea, thyroid gland, pituitary gland
cardiovascular system functions and organs
delivers O2 and nutrients to tissues and equalizes temp in body
heart and blood vesseks
where is glycogen stored
liver and skeletal muscle
