Exam 1 Flashcards
What is Brain Theory (explained by Gazzaniga et al. and Kolb and Whishaw)
- all behavior is a result of and is modulated by the
brain - Fluorenes - aggregate field theory where whole
brain participates in behavior vs franz joseph gall
and localizationism - Thomas Willis was one of the first people to explain
that damage to brain structure was linked to
behavioral deficits (he began theorizing how the
brain
transfers information) - Kolb - brain is the source of behavior
Gall (1800) hypothesized that the size of a given brain area is related to the amount of skill a person has in a certain field or capacity. Has modern brain science falsified this hypothesis.
- the idea that size of brain area can indicate function is still very popular and is being studied today
- Gall’s theorized that they brain area grew bigger, resulting in bumps on the head which is not really true
- there are brain areas that are seen to grow with more use and resulting higher capacity for a certain skill
example: person who plays an instrument likely has a larger area of their brain dedicated to the motor skill that instrument requires
- modern imaging has shown that one process is not limited to one brain area so instead of seeing a growth in area size, we may see a strengthening of those connections
You have been assigned the task of explaining the history of neuropsychology to a high school psych class. You are limited to discussing the work of 3 prominent founds of the field. Who would you choose and why?
- Ribot
- worked with working memory and vision
- he made the distinction between anterograde and retrograde memory impairments
- theorized that the most recent memories are the ones that are most vulnerable in memory loss due to brain damage
- also made the distinction between declarative and nondeclarative memory by looking at patients with amnesia
- laid the groundwork for other memory researchers like Wernicke - Broca
- studied and localized speech production to 3rd gyrus of the left frontal lobe
- suggested lateralization language to the left hemisphere
- did all these studies in Tan, who he was observing and studying externally only - Gall
- studied localization of function and theorized that areas areas of the brain coordinating with skills people were good at grew in size
–this was partially true, as it did not grow the physical dimensions of the skull but rather the brain density increased
- his theories that behaviors and functions were a result of the brain and brain signaling aligns with the ‘brain theory’
- he suggested that the cortex sends signals to the spinal cord, instructing the muscles to move
What is ‘phrenology’? As a scientific approach, how does phrenology differ from modern fMRI approaches?
- scientific approach created by Gall where the bumps on the skull are studied and thought to indicate an increase in the size of brain area under it
- specific areas of the brain coordinated with specific traits, behaviors, and skills
- bump on head = larger area underneath = higher amount of trait that area related too
- modern fMRI looks at functional connectivity, connectivity maps, and where activity is centralized for some task
- when people make conclusions about fMRI studies that are not fully empirically supported, the result is oversimplification of some function or trait to one specific area of the brain
How did materialism help address the “mind-body problem”?
- mind body problem - what is the relationship between mind and body and how the intangible aspects (thoughts, emotions) are embedded/intertwined with the physical matter of our brain/body
- materialism - rational behavior can be fully explained by the nervous system and biological functions
- materialism suggests that all of our intangible qualities and our mind is a result of the biological processes of our nervous system
- does not point to one brain area that is responsible for the mind’s abilities
Who are the various professionals that study the brain? how are their fields similar and different?
Neurologist - treat and diagnose head injury
Neuropsychiatrist - work in psychiatry to work with mental disorders; study brain and behavior relationship
Neurosurgeon - surgery on brain and nervous system; medical doctors/clinician
Psychologist - focus on behavior; can study this without understanding the brain on a molecular level
Neuroscience - work in research and education to study and teach the nervous system (book definition should include cognitive work)
It could be argued that Uiowa is a ‘ground zero’ for the fields of cognitive neuroscience and clinical neuropsychology. Why? How did leaders like Antonio Damasio, Hanna Damasio, and Arthur Benton contribute to this legacy.
Hanna - anatomical expert, started the idea of using lesion information
Antonio - studied behavior and now does consciousness
- Arthur Benton had first neuropsychology lab
- they started the Iowa patient registry which is now used around the world by a number of different people
- they have all trained a number of very successful researchers
- facilitated communication between medical doctor and researcher
- created many tests and assessments that are still used today
Lashley’s theory of mass action states that “the amount of loss is, on average, closely proportional to the amount of cortex destroyed.” His theory of equipotentiality states that “the memory trace is located in all parts of the functional area, and various parts are equipotential for its maintenance and activation.” In light of what we have learned about memory and the brain since Lashley’s time, are these to principles still correct?
Mass action
- the size of the lesion is proportional to the loss of functionality
- still true, especially with amnesia patients
- not true always for children who get hemispherectomies
- plasticity is a huge factors
- Jackson suggested that the rate of development was more predictive about of the seriousness of the deficit rather than how much the brain was actually damaged
Equipotentiality
- if you lose 1/60th of your visual cortex, you are still able to do the basic job of the cortex because the function is shared throughout whole system
- memory is implicated in a number of tracts and areas but not necessarily equally
- certain structures play a bigger role in certain types of memory so it is hard to say and generalize to one idea of memory such as a memory trace
Is neuropsychological assessment still a valuable method for measuring and localizing brain dysfunction (given availability of brain imaging techniques like CT, MRI, and PET) Why or why not?
Yes
- in the past, neuropsychological assessment has shown dysfunction, even if imaging tools show no problem and negative results
- when an assessment is done, the neuropsychologist can give immediate feedback after analyzing all the information plus they get a better understanding of the patient’s behavior in general - yes imaging takes less time for the patient but it yields less information about the patient
- neither should be used alone to diagnose or treat something
- neuropsychological assessment can help predict disorders and outcomes of cognitive impairment
Benton and Tranel noted that patients with brain damage show a remarkable degree of recovery of function over time. What factors are most likely involved in such recovery?
- neural plasticity - next tissue takes over
- recovery that is going to happen no matter what you do and how you try to treat it
- representation of remodeling - use it or lose it
- reorganization of brain and behavior - where we can adapt to situations and learn to achieve things using other routes
- learning to deal with the change
- diaschisis - where the function of an area is disrupted by a lesion to areas it is structurally and functionally connected to, these areas can gain function back over time and possibly recover completely
Define ‘clinical neuropsychology.” what are some of the main purposes of the neuropsychological examination, according to Lezak et al.
- applied science concerned with the behavioral expression of brain dysfunction used to measure complex functions reliably and against norms
- used to diagnose disorders and to separate symptoms of psychiatric disorders and neurological disorders
- to treat neurological disorders
- to identify any issues with patients home or work
The Iowa-Benton approach to neuropsychological assessment is flexible and hypothesis-driven. what does this mean
- no set lists of tests that technicians must follow, instead techs and and neuropsychologists use their judgement to select what tests should be next
- neuropsychologist will do an interview and assess the completed assignments in order to come up with feedback to provide the patient that day
- the types and order of assessments changes from person to person so they are getting an individualized procedure
a 3 year old and a 50 year old have a stroke in their left hemisphere. who will recover faster/better?
the 3 yr old - is still in the critical period for language and have higher amounts of plasticity to recover
- kennard principle - earlier the damage, the better recovery
the 50 yr old - early vulnerability hypothesis where damage done early and during the vulnerable period in their life will decrease recovery in 3 year old
In terms of the X, Y, and Z axes, what are the main directional terms used to describe these planes, and how do they compare/differ between humans and reptiles?
x - horizontal
y - coronal
z - sagittal
Reptiles
X - ventral, dorsal, superior, inferior
Y - anterior, posterior, rostral, caudal
humans above midbrain
X - anterior, posterior, rostral, caudal
Y - superior, inferior, dorsal, ventral
Humans below midbrain
X - ventral, dorsal
Y - rostral, caudal
what are the main lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and what are the landmarks that demarcate the main lobes
frontal - in front of the brain and extended to the central sulcus of rolando
central sulcus - separates frontal and parietal
Temporal - separate from the frontal lobes by the sylvian fissure
occipital - at the back of the brain, separated from the parieto-occipital sulcus
parietal - upper back of brain
what are the main differences between primary cortex, unimodal association, and heteromodal association
primary - deals with the direct, not higher order info and integrates sensory information to perceive it and motor info to make movements
unimodal - higher order processing for single sensory or motor modalities
heteromodal - integrates functions from many sensory or motor modalities
what is the difference between cortex and white matter
cortex - grey matter with mostly cell bodies and dendrites
White matter - axons and glia, mostly on the inner layers around the mid brain
what is brodmann’s map? what is the basis for the map? why is it important for neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience
Brodmann’s map - he separated and numbered the brain into 52 different parts and made note of their function
- basis of the map is that areas next to eachother are similar in function
- however, the map is in the order he parceled the brain out in
- not completely wrong - as the areas that carry similar functions go along with the number system and are locationaly close to eachother
- this is useful and used today because it can give a rough idea of how close different sections of the brain are in function
- minicolumns = neurons stacked ontop of eachother and function as a unit
- macrocolumns = larger scale columns that have associated functions to one another
who the heck would invent several different names for the most of the structures in the CNS
when imaging became popular, people began naming and identifying structures under different names and did not pay attention to neuroanatomy history
- people who kept discovering things , named them even if it was already named due to lack of communication
what is the limbic system and why has the construct of “limbic system” persisted in cognitive neuroscience. Why is it important in understanding certain brain behavior relationships like memory and emotion
Limbic system = group of structures in the mid brain that are highly connected
- includes amygdala, hippocampus, anterior thalamic nuclei, basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex
Persisted because processes like memory and emotion can not be localized to just one structure of the brain and the structures of the limbic system are many of the same characteristics and work towards the same goal
what is synaptogenesis
formation of synapses and the arborization of dendrites during NS development
- starts at around 27 weeks
- reaches peak density around first 15 months after birth, then pruning begins, leaving the most efficient pathway
- synaptogenesis beings earlier in the deepest layers of the brain and continues outwards
what are the 4 leading hypothesis about how the human brain enlarged so quickly and so much
- climate changes - forced hominins to adapt to new climates and landscapes, and led to more complex food finding/handling behaviors, including the use of tools
- the primate lifestyle favored more complex nervous systems - social group size correlated with brain size and also many primates were fruit eaters and had to have a lot of skill
- brains cooling - homo skulls allow blood vessels to pass through to disperse blood flow in the brain, cooling it down in situations of stress or exercise
- Slowed maturation - neoteny = juvenile stages of predecessors become adult features of descendants - slowed maturation leads to more time for body and brain size to increase
3 primary lines of research that benefit from studying non human animals
- understanding basic brain mechanisms - many animals share a similar nervous system
- describing evolutionary and genetic influences on brain development - how our brains and subsequent behavior differ
- animal models of disease
what is the encephalization quotient and how does it help explain larger brains in humans
- quantitative measure of brain to body size rations of animals
- brain and body weights graphed onto plot comparing how far they deviate from what is expected
- under the line = smaller than expected
- over the line = larger than expected
- number of neurons relate to brain’s ability to produce complex behavior
what is phenotypic plasticity and what are the two main factors that drive it?
- even with a constant genotype, different phenotypes can be expressed (in part due to epigenetics and in part due to the ability to express a number of phenotypes)
- changes in phenotypical expression due to life style and environmental factors
- begins with neurodevelopment and which genes are expressed due to current environment
how does the neuroanatomical study by tranel contribute to our understanding of auditory learning and language acquisition in humans
- show that there is a direct pathway between auditory association areas and the temporal areas for learning and memory
- supports the hypothesis that language is acquired in part from memorization
- we need to be able to form and retain memories of auditory stimuli , and we need to be able to remember the sound with the meaning in order to acquire language
does brain size correlate to intelligence
sort of
the brain to body ratio correlates to intelligence but not brain size alone because wales have huge brains for example but are no more intelligent
Flynn Effect
each subsequent generation gets more intelligent
the 2 hemispheres are roughly similar in appearance but what are the important differences in neuroanatomical features
- right hemisphere protrudes in the front and the left protrudes in the back
- right has more volume in front and and left has more volume in back occipital lobe
- longitudinal fissure is bent to the right
- lateral fissure (sylvian fissure) curls upward in the right hemisphere and is more flat in the left
- planmum temporal is larger in left hemisphere (if not = dyslexia)
- cells within columns of different hemispheres have different patterns of branching
- left primary auditory has more dendritic spread
patient with commissurotomy is given an object to palpate with their left hand. The patient cannot see their left hand or the object. what is the patient likely to report under these conditions? what kinds of tests would they pass and what would they fail? how might results change if patient was left-handed
- they would not be able to describe the object or say what it is because they are holding it with their left hand/right brain meaning the left brain (language) does not know what it is holding (patient knows what it is but can not say anything about it)
- they would pass tests that require them to hold the object with their right hand
- fail tasks requiring use of left hand and verbal response
are hemispheric differences present at birth and are they influenced by individual differences like sex or handedness
- sex = males tend to have a corpus collosum that bulges to the right thus they have more on the right than on the left
— could be due to high levels of fetal testosterone in male which slows development of posterior parts of left hemisphere (pushing the callosum to the right) / could be why females have accelerated language plus more left handed males - handedness = right handed chimps have higher neuronal density in layers 2 and 3 in the left primary motor
- some are present at birth like dyslexia which is when the planum temporal is symmetrical even in kids who don’t know how to read
evaluate a 62- year-old woman who has suffered right hemisphere stoke. she and every one in her family is left handed taking into account cerebral laterality, handedness, and sex, explain if and why you think she would have speech and language deficits
- she probably has language localized to right side of brain if she and her whole family are left handed
- cerebral laterality = people who are left handed have a shift in laterality that is to the right of the cerebrum
- genetics = familial left handed people have different brain anatomies than non familial left handers (non familial people have brain anatomy that looks more like right handers)
- sex - more men are left handed but if her family is left handed
why do humans have hand, foot, eye, etc. preferences. why is it usually for the right. why is right preference stable in population for thousands of years?
- favoring of one hand over the other in tool use
- mom holds baby with left arm so they can hear her heart
- more ridges in our fingertips in right than left hand – seen in utero
- genetic component where handedness exists on a spectrum
- language is localized on left side
verbal
parallel
physical
control
serial
emotional processing
verbal = left
parallel = right (pattern recognition, perceptual processing, processing multiple and parallel streams of info at once)
physical = right due to spatial reasoning and hemispatial neglect
control - left
serial - left due to arithmetic
emotional processing - right (use emotion to manipulate speech meaning
what sort of evidence indicate that there are important functional differences between left and right hemispheres? discuss split brain patient and how this contributed to this question
- evidence that 2 hemispheres are not aware of what is going on in the other side with lateralized functions like language and tactile stimuli
—split brain patient retrieved correct visual stimulus card with left hand after seeing the object in his left visual field but once the card was turned over, he could no longer recall what it was
—he responded correctly to the correct count by the left hand of tactile stimuli applied to the left led or hand but when asked about it he was not aware he had felt it - information that requires cross-integration does not do great
- motor function when doing habitual actions with both hands was fine but the left hand alone could not do these tasks
- Agnosia - loss of ability to verbally identify objects
- Anomia - inability to remember names and people or objects
- Agraphia - loss of ability to write
Roger Sperry noted his “split brain” experiments came when people thought the right brain was mite, agraphia, dyslexic, word-deaf, apraxia, and lacking in cognitive function. how did his work help change this idea
- they showed that the right hemisphere was able to comprehend high level words and the disconnected right hemisphere was able to read the words in the left visual field showed by pointing to the corresponding objects or pictures in a choice array
- could spell short words and read them when presented tactually
- disconnected hemisphere behaved like it was not conscious of cognitive events of other hemisphere
- all this was supported by hemispherectomy data
Gazzaniga had novel insights into what each of the cerebral hemispheres could and could not do when working along. discuss 3 main findings and how they contribute to the reformation of hemispheric laterality and specialization s
- no changes in temperament or intellect
— personality and intelligence are not thought to be localized to one side or one specific area of the brain - this work supports that idea - tactile function has been lateralized to left hemisphere
— tests show no significant impairments when tested with right side of the body/left brain but did show impairments in opposite hand - complex written material can be read via left hemisphere/right visual field but can not be read via left visual field
- motor ability not impaired with habitual tasks or when he was using both hands to make symmetrical movements
catani and mesulam call attention to the distinction between hodology and topography how does this help us understand how the brain works
Hodology - the convergence of different information sources in order to form a pathway (the study of pathway connections)
Example: visual hypoemotionality - low emotional response to emotional visual stimuli
—ex: mother who abused substances during pregnancy reacting the their baby’s image
—ex: no fear in monkey to snakes as a result of disconnection between visual cortex and limbic system
topography - organization map
helps us to understand organization of brain because many functions are not one brain area only
the disconnection theory is based on hodology and is a biologically plausible account of mental phenomina
functionality is not lost - the ability to d o the function is lost due to some disconnection
Monkey is given a particular brain lesion that renders it unable to recognize the “meaning” of a snake. what is this condition. how could it be caused by a disconnection syndrome
agnosia - inability to recognize objects
- disconnection between different brain areas that would allow you to combine memory, visual and language comprehension ideas
- damage to convergence pathway disrupted in higher mental function
according to sutterer and tranel, how have connectionist approaches been important in the fields of neuropsychology (initially) and then fMRI more recently
connectionist approaches
- allow for more nuanced conclusions
- suggest that area that is normally involved in a function is not necessary for that function
- use to tease apart the results of imaging studies that conflict one another
—fMRI can pick up activity in overlapping areas and can suggest one area is necessary for 2 functions, however, lesion mapping can show they are not interconnected and one area is not necessary for the other
- refutes imaging studies that make function-structure mapping conclusions drawn from fMRI interpretations
- provide clarity on conflicting theories
fMRI
- accurate registration of the site of damage to a common space that can be assessed for brain-behavior relationships
- movement of fMRI studies that look at all the areas where certain things are localized like love, chocolate craving, etc.
- functional connectivity and networks are high right now
- functional connectivity and how it is reflected in behavior
- chronic cases of over or underactivity
- shift from “locationalist” to connectionist ideas
specializations of right hemisphere
constructional
praxic
visuospatial
facial recognition
block design
drawing 3d cube
—think gestault, holistic processing, integration of senses and processes to imaging the whole while assessing the parts
Explain how “edge density” and “participation coefficient” are useful measures of network hubness. how did the findings from this study shed light on the relative importance of damage to while matter vs grey matter for cognitive impairments following focal brain damage
edge density is the white matter
participation coefficient is the grey matter
hubs are areas highly connected and important for coordinating processes in the brain networks
white mat``ter, edge density damage is more correlated with cognitive impairment than grey matter, participation coefficient is
2 main types of stroke
what are the implications for cognitive deficits and recovery
Ischemia
- vessel is blocked preventing sufficient blood flow to brain
- can be temporary and change by flow reduction due to narrowing of vessels
- can be blocked by clot
- can be really serious (clot) or can be fleeting sensation of giddiness or impaired consciousness
- can be treated with TPA (tissue plasminogen activator) which is an anticoagulant
Hemorrhagic
- bleeding into the brain, often due to high blood pressure
- abrupt onset and quickly fatal
- happens when person is awake and doing something likely to increase bp
- poor prognosis if person is out for more than 48 hours
- “worst headache of my life” symptomology
in predicting the trajectory and degree of recovery in a patient with a head injury, what factors would you want to take into account
- if they were in a come or unconscious and for how long - duration of unconsciousness can serve as a measurement for the severity of damage
- posttraumatic amnesia and how bad it is - lasting less than 10 minutes = very mild - lasting 10-60 minutes = mild - lasting 1-24 hours = moderate - lasting 1-7 days = very severe
what are the characteristic neuropathological features of Alzheimer’s Disease
Beta amyloid plaques (Nps = senile/neuritic plaques) - focal amyloid deposition with nearby dystrophic neuritis, reactive astrocytes and microglia - hydrophobic fragment of transmembrane glycoprotein
Tau protein tangles (NFTs = neurofibrillary tangles) - microtubules from tau filament become drawn together due to changes in ionic electromagnetic properties leading to tangles
how is epilepsy diagnosed
the occurrence of one epileptic seizure from spontaneous, abnormal discharge of brain neurons as a result of scarring from injury, tumors, or infections
compare and contrast frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer-type dementia
Frontotemporal
- primary degenerative dementia
- shows early prominent issues with executive functioning and social behavior
- 8 years of illness
- does not usually effect episodic memory
- impairs executive function, personality, interpersonal skills, impulsivity, loss of manners, socially inappropriate behavior, loss of empathy and sympathy
= perseverance, ritualistic/compulsive, stereotyped behavior, dietary changes, impaired executive function
AD
- issues with episodic memory
- anterograde amnesia
- cognitive deterioration
- gait abnormalities, parkinsonism, focal signs
- cholinergic deficiency in AD
- long presymptomatic phase
- 7-10 years no remissions
- disturbances in spatial cognition, executive function, and language
- no issues with motor and primary senses of touch, hearing, or sight
- atrophy of the frontal, parietal, and inferotemporal associateion cortices
why is depression a complicating factor in diagnosing dementia
- depression can lead to pseudodementia
- depression is a symptom if dementia
- can be hard to tease apart depression and organic dementia
- depression and other psychiatric symptoms can manifest in people who have chronic traumatic encephalopathy due to repetitive mild TBIs
what are some of the best established risk factors for developing AD
aging
genetic factors (apolipoprotein E - excess of e4 allele)
past head injury
female sex
limited amount of education
3 types of closed head injury
- coup - damage at site of blow, bruise, or contusion occurring from brain being compacted by the bone pushing onto in from the blow
- Countercoup - pressure from the couple that pushes the brain into the opposite side of the skill creating another bruise
- shearing - brain movement causes twisting and shearing of nerve fibers creating microscopic lesions and leading to damage of the main fiber tracts leading to disrupted connection between hemispheres or sites (cognitive fog, fatigue, and cognitive difficulties)
Do lesions caused be stroke versus tumor have different neuropsychological consequences?
From a methodological standpoint, how do the 2 studies inform the question of whether patients with stroke should be used together with patients with tumor in neuropsychological investigations of brain-behavior relationships
lesions caused by strokes
- dysfunction depends on the actual destruction of neurons
- greater contralateral motor impairment than tumor subjects
- decreased verbal intelligence relative to nonverbal intelligence
- greater impairments than tumor group on agnostic aphasia examination, reading test, and multilingual aphasia examination
- did not differ from tumor group in non-linguistic tasks, facial recognition (left)
- impaired non-verbal intellect, visual memory, visuoperception and visuoconstruction (right)
Lesions caused by tumors
- dysfunction depends on the displacement of neurons
- impaired word finding, language disturbances, aphasia
- no difference in verbal and non-verbal intellect
- visuoperceptual, visual memory, and intellect in tact
- tumors tend not to seriously disrupt function
—–stroke and tumor patients should not be used together because sometimes even extensive tumors do not cause the damage a stroke does
- combining the data can lead to artificial results, variance, and failure to actually detect brain/behavior relationships
Do lesions caused by stoke versus head injury have different neuropsychological consequences?
From a methodological standpoint, how do the 2 studies inform the question of whether patients with stroke patients with head injury in neuropsychological investigations of brain-behavior relationships
lesions caused by stroke:
- dysfunction depends on destruction of neurons
- decreased verbal intelligence
- impaired non verbal intellect, visual memory, visuoperception and visuoconstruction
lesions caused by head injury:
- similar in the chronic phase as stroke
- both caused cognitive and behavioral deficits
- no consistent pattern of variability favoring stoke vs TBI
—–stoke and TBI can be used together and the groups showed no significant cognitive differences between them
you are asked to conduct a neuropsychological evaluation of a 54-year old, right handed fireman who suffered prolong oxygen deprivation. what might you find from your testing, what types of deficits would you expect and what function would be preserved? what brain imaging procedures and findings might you seek out to help?
would expect
- signs of white matter damage and atrophy
- bilateral hippocampal damage
- increased sulci size and increased ventricle to brain ratio
Deficits
- declined anterograde memory
- personality and behavior changes
- visuospatial issues
Preservations
- motor ability
- autobiographical memory
Use MRI for neuroanatomical data
using the findings from allen et al. discuss the relationship between anoxia, hippocampal injury, and amnesia
- anoxia is significantly correlated with hippocampal injury leading to the increased probability of anterograde amnesia
- extent of anoxic event might be correlated with the extend of damage to hippocampus
- the extent of hippocampus damage might be correlated with severity of amnesia
according to abel et al what is the key factor that determines whether patients with resection of benign brain tumors will have post-surgical deficits in adaptive functioning and value based decision making
- if the damage was in their ventral medial prefrontal cortex
- lesion size is correlated with impairments in attention, memory, verbal-language function, emotional function, executive function, and adaptive function
what is autobiographical memory
memory of one’s life and personal history or what went on around a person during their life
how does episodic autobiographical memory differ from semantic autobiographical memory
episodic - personal experiences of people, places, events, timings, etc.
semantic - general knowledge about world learned by a person in their lifetime
based on the cases presented in zeman article and based on first-hand descriptions from one of those cases, patient pt, what are some of the most devastating consequences of impaired autobiographical memory? what would one’s life be like without such memory
- not being able to remember one’s past
- PT says “it is as if my car’s rear view mirror is broken; I can’t see much of where I’ve been. I can see what is right behind me, but beyond that things are just grey.”
- no real sense of self
- lonely because it is hard to relate to people
