Exam 1 Flashcards
concepts
abstractions of human characteristics (like pain, fatigue, obesity)
In a qualitative study = phenomena
construct
abstraction inferred from situations or behaviors - deliverable invented or constructed
I.e. self care
Construct = more complex abstraction than a concept
variables
concepts in quantitative studies
I.e. weight, fatigue, stress
independent variable
presumed cause
dependent variable
presumed effect = O in PICO
Variation in the dependent variable is likely too depend on variation in the independent variable
Is the variable researchers want to understand, explain or predict
data
pieces of info obtained in a study
Quantitative data: data in numeric form
Qualitative data: narrative descriptions
relationship
bond or connection b/w phenomena
I.e b/w smoking and lung cancer
Ex: cause and effect relationship
grounded theory
- research with roots in sociology that seeks to describe and understand the key social psychological processes that occur in social settings
- seek to understand actions by focusing on the main concern or problem that the individual’s behavior is designed to address
Focus on developing social experience
Phenomenology
concerned with lived experiences of humans
Approach to thinking about what life experiences of people are like and what they mean
psychology/philosophy
ethnography
provides a framework for studying partners, lifeways and experiences of a defined cultural group
anthropology
characteristics of good research questions - 3
- identifies the variables
- specifies populations to be studied
- implies possibility of empirical testing
conceptual definition
presents the abstract or theoretical meaning of concepts under study
I.e. pain - discomfort, uncomfortable feeling
*can be an end product in qual studies
operational defintion
specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept and collect needed info
I.e. for measuring anxiety, tools, scales
phases of quantitative study (5)
- conceptual phase (formulating the problem)
- design and planning phase (sampling)
- empirical phase (collecting data)
- analytic phase (analyzing and interpreting)
- dissemination phase (communicating the findings)
hypothesis
prediction about relationship b/w variables
null hypothesis
statistical hypotheses: state that there is no relationship between IV and DV
I.e. patients age is unrelated to their risk of falling
characteristics of good hypotheses (3)
- states variable and population
- identifies the predicted relationship: converts question into a declarative statement, predicts relationship b/w variables
- is testable
Directional hypothesis
one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship b/w variables
I.e. older patients are more likely to fall than younger patients
nondirectional hypothesis
does not state the direction of the relationship
I.e. there is a relationship b/w age of patient and risk of falling
statistical significance
supports inferences that a hypothesis probably correct or not
means findings are probably reliable and replicable with a new sample
level of significance (p < 0.05)
index of how probable it is that the findings are reliable
.05 level = only 5 times out of 100 would the result be spurious = 95 times out of 100, similar results would be obtained in a new sample
PICOT
population intervention (IV) comparison or control outcome (DV) timeframe
clinical research
involves human subject participants with the aim of generating generalizable knowledge to improve human health and well-being
nursing research
to answer questions and undertake systematic inquiry to generate evidence on problems of interest to nurses
ethics
systematic method of inquiry that helps us to answer how we ought to live and why,
Should we perform clinical research on human participants? Why or why not?
If yes, how should it be done
research design
the overall plan for answering a quantitative study’s research question.
moderator variable
affects the strength or direction of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
complex hypothesis
predicts the relationship between two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables
3 principles of Belmont Report
- respect for persons/human dignity
- beneficence
- justice
what does respect for persons/human dignity entail (2)
right to self determination (no coercion, can voluntarily decide to participate),
right to full disclosure (absence of deception, concealment and right to refuse)
informed consent*
what does beneficence entail
persons are treated in an ethical manner by 1. Freedom from harm and exploitation and 2. Maximizing possible benefits and minimizing possible harms
what does justice entail
right to fair treatment
right to privacy and anonymity
fair procedures and outcomes in the selections of subjects
45CFR46 subparts (HHS)
Subpart A: common rule - revised Jan 2019
B - pregnant women, fetuses and neonates
C- prisoners
D - children
CFR Title 21 (FDA)
FDA
Usually physician research
Clinical investigations involving FDA regulated projects or supporting applications to FDA (50 & 56)
who makes up an IRB
Composed of at least 5 members
At least 1 scientific member
At least 1 non scientific member
At least 1 member unaffiliated within the org
Expertise in local org policy, state regulatory parameters and federal CFR
full board IRBs
More than minimal risk to subjects
Not covered under other review categories
Ex: interventions involving physical or emotional discomfort or sensitive data
expedited IRBs
Not greater than minimal risk
Fits one of the 9 expedited review categories
Ex: collection of biospecimens by noninvasive means, research w/ existing documents/record collected for non research purposes in which subject are identifiable.
exempt IRBs
Less than minimal risk
Fits one of 6 exempt categories
Ex: research with de-identified records, anonymous surveys, Research only involving education tests, surveys, interview or observation of public behavior, research on public officials or existing data, public benefit service, taste and food evals, storage and maintenance for secondary research
minimal risk
probability and magnitude of physical or psychological harm that is normally encountered in the daily lives, or in the routine medical, dental or psychological exam of healthy persons
how do you know if the research subject to 45CFR46
if it is receiving federal funding
informed consent and what it should include (4)
participants have adequate information about the research, comprehend that info, and can consent to or decline participation voluntarily
Should include study title, why study is being done, what are the study procedures, what will they be asked to do
Broad consent 46.104db
An alternative to traditional informed consent or waiver of informed consent
Applicable to secondary research with identifiable private info or identifiable biospecimens
*does not include return of results as part of the study
HIPAA
at least 18 categories of identifiable health info (name, DOB, geographic locators, MRNs, images, etc.)
how to protect against HIPAA violations
encryption of data, authentication of passwords for those who have access to research study data, software security and electronic and physical security of data storage devices and networks
NIH certificate of confidentiality
any research that involves collection of personally identifiable, sensitive info is potentially eligible for a certificate
If it damages participants financial standing, employability or reputation
Certificate allows researchers to refuse to disclose identifying info on study participants in any civil, criminal, admin or legislative proceeding
data safety monitoring board
An independent committee that reviews interim safety and efficacy data and provides advice on continuing, modifying or terminating the study
Purpose: oversee and monitor clinical trials to ensure participant safety and validity and integrity of the data
falsification
making up results and reporting them
fabrication
manipulating research materials, data, or processes or manipulating data so that the record does not accurately represent research
plagiarism
appropriating another person’s ideas, results or words w/o giving that person appropriate credit
what do you have to have for it to be considered misconduct
has to be deliberate/intentional or repeated noncompliance
problem statement
presents rationale for the study
statement of purpose
summarizes goal of the study
anonymity
safeguard mechanism by which even the researcher cannot link the participant with the information provided
process consent
researcher continually renegotiates consent -usually in qualitative studies
covert data collection
collection of data without participants knowledge and consent - can happen if a researcher wanted to observe people’s behavior in real world settings and worried that doing so openly would affect behavior of interest
can be acceptable if risk are negligible and participants right to privacy hasn’t been violated
deception
involves deliberately withholding information about the study or providing participants with false information
implied consent
when written consent is not obtained because the participants completes a questionnaire or something similar that reflects consent to participate
Researchers often provide an info sheet that contains elements of the informed consent but doesn’t require a signature
what must be shared with the patient under HIPAA if their info is disclosed (3)
- who will receive info,
- what type of info will be disclosed and
- what further disclosures the researcher anticipates
why do qualitative research (3)
- Could be that there is no literature out there
- Looking at something new, unexplored or a rare condition that people have that you can’t get good data on
- Good if you are not in that population and you don’t understand it
emergent design
takes shape as qualitative studies / researchers make ongoing decisions reflecting what they have learned
Based on participants realities and viewpoints
Unfolding as you go
Might shift type participants as you go, change type of questions you are asking
descriptive phenomenology
Descriptions of human experience
What do we know as people
bracketing and what type of study is this associated with
process of identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about phenomenon under study → helps to remove influences that can block access to meaning
*descriptive phenomenology
Interpretive phenomenology = hermeneutics
Understanding the human experience
Putting meaning to it based on what you understand/interpret
cultural behavior
what members do
cultural artifacts
what people make and use
cultural speech
what people say
emic perspective
way members of a culture envision their world - insiders’ view
Local language, concepts or means of expression used by members of the group understudy
etic perspective
outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of that culture - language used by those doing the research to refer to the same phenomena
fieldwork: what is it and which type of qual study is it associated with?
how ethnographer comes to understand a culture - Use interviews, observations, records, physical evidence
key informant
expert source of information, help them understand and interpret the activities they observe - in the culture
grounded theory theorists
Glaser & Strauss
theory
explanation of relationship of phenomenon
core variable (grounded theory)
how people resolve main concern
One type of core variable = basic social process
constant comparison (grounded theory)
categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that the commonalities and variations can be determined
Once researcher starts to get data and interview people → analyze early on and compare to what participants are saying and start to understand data pattern - compare data pattern and interviews
Where design might change (emergent design)
descriptive qualitative studies
qualitative studies that do not have a formal name
Ex: nurses’s perspective on uses of chaplains in hospital
critical theory
- Concerned with a critique of society and w/ envisioning new possibilities
- Action oriented
- Calls for inquiries that foster self knowledge and socio political action
Participatory action research
-Based on a recognition that the production of knowledge can be political and can be used to exert power
-Action researchers typically work w/ groups or communities that are vulnerable
-Researchers and participants collaborate in defining the problem, selecting the research methods and analyze the data, decide on use to which findings are put
aim = knowledge, action and consciousness-raising
do qualitative studies have more or less participants than quantitative studies
less, usually < 50
typical number of participants in a phenomenology study
~15
typical number of participants in grounded theory study
~15-30
criteria for qualitative study
person experienced the phenomenon, culture or process under study
strategy for qualitative studies
relevant to tradition, rich info, transferable, believable, ethical and feasible
reflexivity
refers to researchers’ awareness of themselves as part of the data they are collecting
Awareness of one’s beliefs and biases
Ability of researcher to locate himself in the process of research
ethnography: types of data
primarily observation, interviews, and artifacts, documents, photographs, genealogies, maps, social network diagrams
ethnography: units of data collection
cultural systems
ethnography: data collection points
mainly longitudinal
ethnography: length of time for data collection
typically long, many months or years
ethnography: data recording
field notes, logs, interview notes/recording
phenomenology: types of data
in-depth interviews, sometimes diaries
phenomenology: unit of data collection
individuals
phenomenology: data collection points
usually cross sectional
phenomenology: length of time for data collection
moderate
phenomenology: data recording
interview notes/ recordings
grounded theory: types of data
individual interviews
sometimes group interviews
observation, participant journals
documents
grounded theory: unit of data collection
individuals
grounded theory: length of time for data collection
moderate
grounded theory: data recording
interview notes/recordings
memoing
observational notes
unstructured interviews - what are they and which type of study are they most associated with
conversational, usually when they do not have a clear idea of what is is they don’t know
Do not have prepared questions
Ethnographic are unstructured
semi structured interviews
- Know what they want to ask but cannot predict what answers will be
- Researchers prepare a written topic guide to be covered w/ each participant
- Encourage participants to talk freely about all topics on the guide and tell stories on their own
focus groups
Group of people is assembled for discussion
Interviewer guides discussion according to a written set of questions or topics to be covered
People are usually homogeneous
cons: can lead to group think
photo elicitation
involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographs
critical incidents
type of unstructured self report
gather info about specific incidents experienced
participant observation: what is it and what type of study is it associated with?
ethnographic
make observations of the culture while participating in activities and use key informants to help them understand and interpret the activities they observe
data collection and positioning - what might they observe?
Physical setting Participants Activities Frequency and duration Precipitating factors Organization Tangible factors
3 main types of data
Audio recordings/transcribe
video recordings/transcribe
Field notes
field notes
broader, more analytic and more interpretive than a log (field diary) - represent observer’s efforts to record info and to synthesize and understand the data
-narrative account of what is happening in the field
can be descriptive or reflective
convenience sampling
volunteer sample
Usually how a study will begin
Easy but not preferred
snowball sampling
Asking early informants to refer other study participants
Can help researchers establish trusting relationship with new participants
Can ask for referrals of specific people
Can make the sample restricted to small network of people
purposive sampling
Where qualitative studies eventually evolve to
Selecting specific cases that will most benefit the study
maximum variation sampling
most widely used method of purposive sampling → purposefully selecting persons w/ variation on dimensions of interest, w/ diverse backgrounds
Usually an emergent approach - info from initial participants helps to guide subsequent selection of a diverse group of participants
theoretical sampling
The process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collect, codes and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next, where to find them in order to develop his theory as it emerges
data saturation
sampling to the point at which no new info is obtained and redundancy is achieved
critical case sampling
involves selecting cases that are especially important or illustrative
typical case sampling
selecting cases that illustrate or highlight what is typical, average or normal
stratified purposive sampling
select participants in distinct groups along a single dimension
extreme deviant case sampling
provides opportunities for learning from most unusual and extreme informants
intensity sampling
involve info rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest intensely but not as extreme or potentially distorting manifestations
reputational sampling
select cases based on a a recommendation of an expert or key informant
opportunistic sampling
adding new case to a sample based on changes in research circumstances as data re-collected or in response to new leads
data coding
used to identify an interesting, salient, evocative or essential feature of the data in relation to the phenomenon under investigation
what type of coding happens first
Reductionistic - masses of data into smaller, manageable sections
constructionism
segments are put together into meaningful conceptual patterns
part of data analysis
code
essential feature of the data in relationship to the phenomenon under investigation - phrase, sentence or paragraph
theme
abstract entity, bring meaning and identify to a current experience, captures and unifies
what does phenomenological data analysis entail
Holistic contextualizing strategies that involves interpreting narrative data within the context of the whole text
Colaizzi method (pheno descriptive)
return to study participants to validate
Giorgi method ((pheno descriptive)
relies solely on researchers - inappropriate to return to participants to validate findings or to use external judges to review analysis
Van Kaam method (pheno descriptive)
requires that intersubjective agreement be reached w/ other expert judges
Van Manen’s method
researchers try to group the essential meaning of experience being studied
themes can be uncovered by participant’s descriptions of the experience
grounded theory analysis : constant comparison
core feature in all grounded theory analyses
Involves a comparison of elements present in one data source (i.e. in one interview) with those in another to determine if they are similar
grounded theory: open coding
used in first stage of the constant comparative analysis - captures what is going on in the data
Data are broken down into incidents and similarities and differences are examined
grounded theory: level I coding
in vivo codes - directly from participants words and have vivid imagery
grounded theory: level II coding
broader, categories
grounded theory: level III coding
theoretical constructs - most abstract
when does open coding end
when core category is established
core category
pattern of behavior that is relevant for participants
basic social process
a central social process that is discovered through analysis of grounded theory data
one kind of core variable and evolves over time in two or more phases
are all BSPs core variables?
yes but not vice versa
theoretical coding: when does it begin and what is it?
begins while selective coding is still in progress - helps grounded theories to weave the broken pieces of data back together
Connect categories and constructs that relate to the core category
ethnography analysis: domain analysis
domain = units of cultural knowledge, broad categories that encompass smaller ones
Identify relational patterns among the terms in the domain that are used by members of the culture
ethnography: taxonomic analysis
Ethnographer decides how many domains the analysis will encompass
Taxonomy = system of classifying and organizing terms - developed to illustrate the internal organization of a domain and the relationship among the subcategories of the domain
ethnography: componential analysis
Ethnographer analyzes data for similarities and differences among cultural terms in the domain
ethnography: theme analysis
cultural themes are uncovered, discovery of cultural meaning
content analysis
family of analytic approaches. Analysis of the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes and is used in descriptive qual studies
breaking down into meaning units
meaning units
words, sentences or paragraphs containing aspects related to each other through their content and context - smallest segment of a text that contains a recognizable piece of info
secondary coding
codes that develop into categories
credibility
Refers to the confidence in the truth of the data and the interpretations of them
Involves carrying out the study in a way that enhances the believability of the findings and taking steps to demonstrate credibility in the research process
dependability
Refers to the stability or reliability of data over time and conditions
confirmability
Objectivity - potential for congruence b/w 2 or more independent people about the data’s accuracy, relevance or meaning
transferability
Refers to the potential for extrapolation - extent to which findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups
authenticity
- extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of realities
- Emerges when it conveys the feeling tone of participants lives as they are lived
ways to enhance quality: prolonged engagement
investment of sufficient time collecting data to have an in depth understanding of the people under study, to test for misinformation and to ensure saturation of key categories
Essential for building trust w/ informants
ways to enhance quality/credibility: Persistent observation
concerns the salience of the data being gathered and recorded
Refers to researcher’s focus on the characteristics or aspects of a situation or a conversation that are relevant to the phenomena being studied
triangulation
refers to the use of multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the trust
time triangulation
involves collecting data on the same phenomenon multiple times
Can involve gathering data at different times of the day or at different times in the year
space triangulation
involves collecting data on the same phenomenon in multiple sites to test for cross site consistency
person triangulation
involves collecting data from different types or levels of people w/ aim of validating data through multiple perspectives on the phenomenon
method triangulation
using multiple methods of data collection about the same phenomenon
peer debriefing
involves sessions w/ peers to review and explore various aspects of the inquiry
member check
researchers provide feedback to participants about the study - including emerging interpretations and elicit participants reactions
Helps establish credibility
Participants realities should match researchers understanding
Can be an ongoing process during data collection
can ask participants (individually or focus group) to confirm accuracy of verbatim transcripts or review analyses of data
disconfirming cases
examples that do not fit and challenge researcher’s interactions
how to enhance dependability (reliability)
replicate findings
team coding
how to enhance confirmability
- inquiry audit: involves scrutiny of the data and supporting documents by an external reviewer
- audit trail
how to enhance transferability
Thick description: thorough and vivid description of the research context, the people who participated in the study and the experiences/processes observed
when does ethnographic data analysis begin
when researcher steps into the field
incubation
process of living the data, process in which researchers must try to understand the data’s meaning, find essential patterns and draw conclusions
is qualitative data analysis usually inductive or deductive
inductive - Involves discovering pervasive ideas and searching for general concepts throughout an inductive process
When is content analysis used
type of study
Descriptive qualitative studies
Primary function of core category
Primary function: integrate the theory and make it dense and saturated
4 types of ethnographic data analysis
domain
taxonomic
componential
theme
data triangulation
involves use of multiple data sources for purpose of validating conclusions and can take several forms (time, space, persons)
In which type of qualitative research is the literature review most likely to be carried out after data collection?
grounded theory
selective coding
researchers code only those data that relate to the core variable
begins when core category is discovered
2 domains of clinical research
biomedical and behavioral
3 key nursing regulations
ANA code of ethics
Nurse’s role in ethics and human rights in practice settings (ANA)
ICN code of ethics for nursing (global, int’l)
can you prove a hypothesis
Hypotheses are never proved or disproved, only supported or rejected
