Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Define Anatomy and define the subspecialties of Anatomy.
A
Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structure. The subspecialties of anatomy include:
Gross anatomy: the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification.
Microscopic anatomy: the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices.
Regional anatomy: the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen.
Systemic anatomy: the study of the structures that make up a discrete body structure–that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function.
2
Q
Define Physiology and define the subspecialties of Physiology.
A
Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life.
Neurophysiology: the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking.
Molecular Level: such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travels along the nerves.
3
Q
Name the 6 levels of structural organization and the functions/components of each level.
A
- ) Chemical Level: Atoms bond to form molecules with three dimensional structures.
- Atoms: The smallest amount of a chemical element that retains the characteristic properties of that element. The four most important atoms are N, O, C, and H.
- Molecules: Atoms combine to form molecules
- Macromolecules: Complex molecules. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. - ) Cellular Level
- Organelles: Specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions
- Cells: The smallest unit capable of life. Many kinds: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Human body contains 75 trillion cells of 200 different kinds. - ) Tissue Level
- Tissues: Groups of similar cells, there are 4 basic tissue types in the body: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nervous. - ) Organ Level
- Organs: Structures that are composed of two or more tissue types, have specific functions, and usually have recognizable shapes. - ) System Level
- Organ Systems (11): A system consists of several related organs that have a common function. Sometimes an organism is part of more than one system. - ) Organism Level
- The total organism
4
Q
Name all of 11 systems of the body
A
- ) Integumentary System
- ) Skeletal System
- ) Muscular System
- ) Nervous System
- ) Endocrine System
- ) Cardiovascular System
- ) Lymphatic System
- ) Respiratory System
- ) Digestive System
- ) Urinary System
- ) Male/Female Reproductive System
5
Q
Integumentary System
A
Consists of: Hair, Skin, Nails
Main Functions:
- Encloses internal body structures
- Site of many sensory receptors
6
Q
Skeletal System
A
Consists of: Cartilage, Bones, and Joints
Main Functions:
- Supports the body
- Enables movement (with the muscular system)
7
Q
Muscular System
A
Consists of: Skeletal muscles, tendons
Main Functions:
- Enables movement (with skeletal system)
- Helps maintain body temperature
8
Q
Nervous System
A
Consists of: Brain, Spinal Cord, and Peripheral nerves
Main Functions:
- Detects and processes sensory information
- Activates bodily responses
9
Q
Endocrine System
A
Consists of: Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas, Adrenal glands, Testes, and Ovaries
Main Functions:
- Secretes hormones
- Regulates bodily processes
10
Q
Cardiovascular System
A
Consists of: Heart and Blood vessels
Main Functions:
- Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
- Equalizes temperature in the body
11
Q
Lymphatic System
A
Consists of: Thymus, Lymph nodes, Spleen, Lymphatic vessels
Main Functions:
- Returns fluid to the blood
- Defends against pathogens
12
Q
Respiratory System
A
Consists of: Nasal passage, Trachea and Lungs
Main Functions:
- Removes Carbon Dioxide from the body
- Delivers oxygen to blood
13
Q
Digestive System
A
Consists of: Stomach, Liver, Gall Bladder, Large Intestine, and Small Intestine
Main Functions:
- Processes food for use by the body
- Removes wastes from undigested food
14
Q
Urinary System
A
Consists of: Kidneys, Urinary Bladder
Main Functions:
- Controls water balance in the body
- Removes wastes from blood and excretes them
15
Q
Male Reproductive System
A
Consists of: Epididymis, Testes
Main Functions:
- Produces sex hormones and gametes
- Delivers gametes to female
16
Q
Female Reproductive System
A
Consists of: Mammary glands, Ovaries, Uterus
Main Functions:
- Produces sex hormones and gametes
- Supports embryo/fetus until birth
- Produces milk for infant
17
Q
Define each basic life process
A
- ) Organization: A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal compartments. These compartments keep body cells separated from external environmental threats and keep the cells moist and nourished. They also separate internal body fluids from the countless microorganisms that grow on body surfaces, including the lining of certain passageways that connect to the outer surface of the body. The intestinal tract, for example, is home to more bacterial cells than the total of all human cells in the body, yet these bacteria are outside the body and cannot be allowed to circulate freely inside the body.Cells, for example, have a cell membrane (also referred to as the plasma membrane) that keeps the intracellular environment—the fluids and organelles—separate from the extracellular environment. Blood vessels keep blood inside a closed circulatory system, and nerves and muscles are wrapped in connective tissue sheaths that separate them from surrounding structures. In the chest and abdomen, a variety of internal membranes keep major organs such as the lungs, heart, and kidneys separate from others.The body’s largest organ system is the integumentary system, which includes the skin and its associated structures, such as hair and nails. The surface tissue of skin is a barrier that protects internal structures and fluids from potentially harmful microorganisms and other toxins.
- ) Metabolism: The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form. Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) energy and molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and maintain your body structures. There are two types of reactions that accomplish this: anabolism and catabolism.Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it needs by combining small molecules derived from the foods you eatCatabolism is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed for life.Taken together, these two processes are called metabolism. Metabolism is the sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in the body. Both anabolism and catabolism occur simultaneously and continuously to keep you alive. Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store and release energy. The cell stores energy in the synthesis (anabolism) of ATP, then moves the ATP molecules to the location where energy is needed to fuel cellular activities. Then the ATP is broken down (catabolism) and a controlled amount of energy is released, which is used by the cell to perform a particular job.
- ) Responsiveness: Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environments. An example of responsiveness to external stimuli could include moving toward sources of food and water and away from perceived dangers. Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to decrease body temperature.
- ) Movement: Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are moving throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your posture and to focus your vision, and glands are secreting chemicals to regulate body functions. Your body is coordinating the action of entire muscle groups to enable you to move air into and out of your lungs, to push blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have eaten through your digestive tract. Consciously, of course, you contract your skeletal muscles to move the bones of your skeleton to get from one place to another, and to carry out all of the activities of your daily life.
- ) Development, Growth, and Reproduction: Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life. Development includes the process of differentiation, in which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in the body. Development also includes the processes of growth and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation.Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells (such as mineral deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of existing cells.Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from parent organisms. In humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will come to all complex organisms, without reproduction, the line of organisms would end.
18
Q
Define Homeostasis
A
Homeostasis is a condition in which the body’s internal environment remains within certain physiological limits.
19
Q
Define ICF
A
Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid interior of the cell.
20
Q
Define ECF
A
Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid environment outside the enclosure of the cell membrane.
21
Q
Define Interstitial Fluid
A
Interstitial fluid (IF) is the term given to extracellular fluid not contained within blood vessels.
22
Q
Define Feedback System
A
A feedback system (loop) is a cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and fed back to a central control region
23
Q
What two systems regulate homeostasis?
A
The homeostatic responses of the body are regulated by the nervous system and the endocrine system working together or separately.
24
Q
What types of variable are monitored by a feedback cycle?
A
Stress and Illness
25
Name and define the three basic components of a feedback system.
1. ) Control Center: The control center is the component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an effector.
2. ) Receptor: ). A sensor, also referred to a receptor, is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value.
3. ) Effector: An effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
26
Define negative feedback system
Negative feedback is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point. Therefore, negative feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range. The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times, and an understanding of negative feedback is thus fundamental to an understanding of human physiology.
27
Give common examples of negative feedback systems
In order to set the system in motion, a stimulus must drive a physiological parameter beyond its normal range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is “heard” by a specific sensor. For example, in the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess glucose (the stimulus) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells respond to the increased level of blood glucose by releasing the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. The insulin signals skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells (adipocytes), and liver cells to take up the excess glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As glucose concentration in the bloodstream drops, the decrease in concentration—the actual negative feedback—is detected by pancreatic alpha cells, and insulin release stops. This prevents blood sugar levels from continuing to drop below the normal range.Humans have a similar temperature regulation feedback system that works by promoting either heat loss or heat gain. When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives data from the sensors indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal range, it stimulates a cluster of brain cells referred to as the “heat-loss center.” This stimulation has three major effects:Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing more blood from the body core to flow to the surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands are activated to increase their output. As the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes heat with it.The depth of respiration increases, and a person may breathe through an open mouth instead of through the nasal passageways. This further increases heat loss from the lungs.In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain center by exposure to cold reduces blood flow to the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted into a network of deep veins. This arrangement traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat loss is severe, the brain triggers an increase in random signals to skeletal muscles, causing them to contract and producing shivering. The muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using up ATP. The brain triggers the thyroid gland in the endocrine system to release thyroid hormone, which increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body. The brain also signals the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone that causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can be used as an energy source. The breakdown of glycogen into glucose also results in increased metabolism and heat production.
28
Define positive feedback system.
Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point.
29
Give common examples of positive feedback systems.
Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed.Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system. The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching (the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.A second example of positive feedback centers on reversing extreme damage to the body. Following a penetrating wound, the most immediate threat is excessive blood loss. Less blood circulating means reduced blood pressure and reduced perfusion (penetration of blood) to the brain and other vital organs. If perfusion is severely reduced, vital organs will shut down and the person will die. The body responds to this potential catastrophe by releasing substances in the injured blood vessel wall that begin the process of blood clotting. As each step of clotting occurs, it stimulates the release of more clotting substances. This accelerates the processes of clotting and sealing off the damaged area. Clotting is contained in a local area based on the tightly controlled availability of clotting proteins. This is an adaptive, life-saving cascade of events.
30
Define a sign. Give examples.
Signs are objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure. Some examples include runny noses, blisters or sores on the skin, and even withdrawing from friends.
31
Define a symptom. Give examples.
Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer. Some examples include: nausea, thirst, and chest pain.
32
Define basic anatomical position.
To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward.
33
Give the anatomical names for each major part of the body (figure 1.5).
Frons or Forehead (Frontal)
Cranium or Skull (Cranial)
Facies or Face (Facial)
Oris or Mouth (Oral)
Mentis or Chin (Mental)
Axilla or Armpit (Axillary)
Brachium or Arm (Brachial)
Antecubitis or Front of the Elbow (Antecubitial)
Antebrachium or Forearm (Antebrachial)
Carpus or Wrist (Carpal)
Pollex or Thumb
Palma or Palm (Palmar)
Digits (Phalanges) or Fingers (Digital or Phalangeal)
Patella or Kneecap (Patellar)
Crus or Leg (Crural)
Tarsus or Ankle (Tarsal)
Digits (Phalanges) or Toes (Digital or Phalangeal)
Hallux or Great Toe
Pes or Foot (Pedal)
Femur or Thigh (Femoral)
Pubis (Pubic)
Inguen or Groin (Inguinal)
Hip (Coxal)
Umbilicus or Navel (Umbilical)
Abdomen (Abdominal)
Mamma or Breast (Mammary)
Thorcis or Thorax, Chest (Thoracic)
Cervicis or Neck (Cervical)
Nasus or Nose (Nasal)
Auris or Ear (Otic)
Bucca or Cheek (Buccal)
Oculus or Eye (Orbital or Ocular)
Shoulder (Acromial)
Dorsum or Back (Dorsal)
Brachium or Arm (Brachial)
Olecranon or Back of Elbow (Olecranal)
Lumbus or Loin (Lumbar)
Sacrum (Sacral)
Antebrachium or Forearm (Antebrachial)
Manus or Hand (Manual)
Gluteus or Buttock (Gluteal)
Femur or Thigh (Femoral)
Popliteus or Back of Knee (Popliteal)
Sura or Calf (Sural)
Calcaneus or Heel of Foot (Calacaneal)
Planta or Sole of Foot (Plantar)
Cephalon or Head (Cephalic)
Cervicis or Neck (Cervical)
34
Define each directional term used to describe the human body.
Anterior (or ventral) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot.
Posterior (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the oris.Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial toe.Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur.Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones.Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.
35
Define frontal, transverse, sagittal and oblique planes
The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or less commonly a longitudinal section.
The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”)
The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.
36
Where is the dorsal cavity?
The dorsal (posterior) cavity
37
Name the two cavities found in the dorsal cavity.
In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.
38
Where is the ventral cavity?
The ventral (anterior) cavity
39
Name the two major cavities found in the ventral cavity.
The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
40
Name the cavities found within the thoracic cavity.
The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity.
41
What cavity contains the heart?
The thoracic cavity.
42
What cavity contains the lungs?
The thoracic cavity.
43
Name the four quadrants and the organs in each quadrant.
The Four Quadrants are:
Right Upper Quadrant
Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant
Left Lower Quadrant
The Organs In Each Quadrant are:
Right Upper Quadrant: Parts of your liver, right kidney, gallbladder, pancreas, and large and small intestine.
Right Lower Quadrant: The appendix, the upper portion of the colon, and the right ovary and the Fallopian tube in women.
Left Upper Quadrant: The stomach, spleen, left portion of the liver, main body of the pancreas, the left portion of the kidney, adrenal glands, splenix flexure of the colon, and bottom part of the colon.
Left Lower Question: the majority of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left female reproductive organs, and the left ureter.
44
Name the nine regions and the organs found in each.
The Nine Regions Are:
Right Hypochondriac Region
Epigastric Region
Left Hypochondriac Region
Right Lumbar Region
Umbilical Region
Left Lumbar Region
Right Iliac Region
Hypogastric Region
Left Iliac Region
The Organs Located In Each Region Are:
Right Hypochondriac Region: liver (right lobe), gallbladder, hepatic duct, and right colic angle.
Epigastric Region: The esophagus, the stomach, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, the right and left kidneys, the right and left ureters, the right and left suprarenal glands, the small intestine, the transverse colon.
Left Hypochondriac Region: The stomach, the top of the left lobe of the liver, the left kidney, the spleen, the tail of the pancreas, parts of the small intestine, the transverse colon, the descending colon.
Right Lumbar Region: The tip of the liver, the gallbladder, the small intestine, the ascending colon, the right kidney.
Umbilical Region: The stomach, the pancreas, the small intestine, the transverse colon, the right and left kidneys, the right and left ureters
the cisterna chyli.
Left Lumbar Region: A portion of the small intestine, a part of the descending colon, the tip of the left kidney.
Right Iliac Region: The small intestine, the appendix, the cecum, the ascending colon
the right ovary and right fallopian tube in females.
Hypogastric Region: The small intestine, the sigmoid colon, the rectum, the urinary bladder
the right and left ureters, the uterus, the right and left ovaries and the fallopian tubes can be found in females, the vas deferens, the seminal vesicle and the prostate can be found in males.
Left Iliac Region: Part of the small intestine, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, the left ovary and the left fallopian tube in females.
45
Define serous membranes.
A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
46
What is the function of a serous membrane?
Cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
47
Define visceral membrane.
The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organs (the viscera).
48
Define parietal membrane.
The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall).
49
Name the serous membranes of the pericardial cavity.
The pericardium is the serous membrane that encloses the pericardial cavity; the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart.
50
Name the serous membranes of the pleural cavity.
The pleura is the serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity; the pleural cavity surrounds the lungs.
51
Name the serous membranes of the peritoneal cavity?
The peritoneum is the serous membrane that encloses the peritoneal cavity; the peritoneal cavity surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity.
52
Define chemical element.
Elements are substances that cannot be broken down (decomposed) into simpler materials by chemical reactions.
53
Name the first 20 elements on the periodic table and know their chemical symbol and atomic numb
1. ) Hydrogen: Chemical Symbol: H, Atomic Number: 1
2. ) Helium: Chemical Symbol: He, Atomic Number: 2
3. ) Lithium: Chemical Symbol: Li, Atomic Number: 3
4. ) Beryllium: Chemical Symbol: Be, Atomic Symbol: 4
5. ) Baron: Chemical Symbol: B, Atomic Number: 5
6. ) Carbon: Chemical Symbol: C, Atomic Symbol: 6
7. ) Nitrogen: Chemical Symbol: N, Atomic Number: 7
8. ) Oxygen: Chemical Symbol: O, Atomic Number: 8
9. ) Fluoride: Chemical Symbol: F, Atomic Number: 9
10. ) Neon: Chemical Symbol: Ne, Atomic Number: 10
11. ) Sodium: Chemical Symbol: Na, Atomic Number: 11
12. ) Magnesium: Chemical Symbol: Mg, Atomic Number: 12
13. ) Aluminum: Chemical Symbol: Al, Atomic Number: 13
14. ) Silicon: Chemical Symbol: Si, Atomic Number: 14
15. ) Phosphorous: Chemical Symbol: P, Atomic Symbol: 15
16. ) Sulfur: Chemical Symbol: S, Atomic Number: 16
17. ) Chlorine: Chemical Symbol: Cl, Atomic Number: 17
18. ) Aron: Chemical Symbol: Ar, Atomic Number: 18
19. ) Potassium: Chemical Symbol: K, Atomic Number: 19
20. ) Calcium: Chemical Symbol: Ca, Atomic Number: 20
54
Name the six major elements that contribute to our body mass.
1. ) Carbon
2. ) Oxygen
3. ) Hydrogen
4. ) Nitrogen
5. ) Calcium
6. ) Phosphorous
55
How many naturally occurring elements are on the periodic table?
94
56
How many does life require out of those?
25
57
Define atom.
An atom is the smallest quantity of an element that retains the unique properties of that element.
58
Name the 3 subatomic particles, their charge and location in the atom.
Atoms are made up of even smaller subatomic particles, three types of which are important: the proton, neutron, and electron.
The number of positively-charged protons and non-charged (“neutral”) neutrons, gives mass to the atom, and the number of each in the nucleus of the atom determine the element. The number of negatively-charged electrons that “spin” around the nucleus at close to the speed of light equals the number of protons. An electron has about 1/2000th the mass of a proton or neutron.
59
Define chemical symbol.
Each element has been assigned an internationally accepted chemical symbol. These symbol are represented by a one or two letter designation. These symbols are used to write formulas for chemical compounds in which the symbol stands for an atom of the element. The Periodic Table is a graphic representation of the known elements.
60
What is the periodic table?
The Periodic Table is a graphic representation of the known elements. The periodic table of the elements, shown in Figure 2.4, is a chart identifying the 92 elements found in nature, as well as several larger, unstable elements discovered experimentally.
61
How is the periodic table organized?
The elements are arranged in order of their atomic number, with hydrogen and helium at the top of the table, and the more massive elements below.
62
Define atomic number.
Thus, the atomic number, which is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom, identifies the element.
63
Define mass number.
An element’s mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
64
Define atomic mass.
Atomic mass is the mass of both protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
65
How is atomic mass expressed?
Atomic mass is expressed in Daltons.
66
Define relative atomic mass (atomic weight).
Is the average of the atomic masses of all the different isotopes.
67
Know how to calculate number of electrons, protons, neutrons if you are given mass number, or atomic number of an element.
See mass flashcards.
68
Define electron shells.
An electron shell is a layer of electrons that encircle the nucleus at a distinct energy level.
69
What is the relationship between the amount of energy an electron has and its location relative to the nucleus?
Each electron shell has a different energy level, with those closest to the nucleus bing lower in energy than those farther away from the nucleus.
70
How is a subshell different from an electron shell?
Subshells are designated by the letters s, p, d, f, and each letter indicates a different shape.
71
How many electrons are found in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd electron shells?
The atoms of the elements found in the human body have from one to five electron shells, and all electron shells hold eight electrons except the first shell, which can only hold two. This configuration of electron shells is the same for all atoms. The precise number of shells depends on the number of electrons in the atom.
72
Define isotopes?
An isotope is one of the different forms of an element, distinguished from one another by different numbers of neutrons.
73
How are isotopes formed?
Isotopes can either form spontaneously (naturally) through radioactive decay of a nucleus (i.e., emission of energy in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and photons) or artificially by bombarding a stable nucleus with charged particles via accelerators or neutrons in a nuclear reactors.
74
Define radioactive isotopes.
radioactive. A radioactive isotope is an isotope whose nucleus readily decays, giving off subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy.
75
How are radioisotopes used in medicine?
The controlled use of radioisotopes has advanced medical diagnosis and treatment of disease. Interventional radiologists are physicians who treat disease by using minimally invasive techniques involving radiation. Many conditions that could once only be treated with a lengthy and traumatic operation can now be treated non-surgically, reducing the cost, pain, length of hospital stay, and recovery time for patients. For example, in the past, the only options for a patient with one or more tumors in the liver were surgery and chemotherapy (the administration of drugs to treat cancer). Some liver tumors, however, are difficult to access surgically, and others could require the surgeon to remove too much of the liver. Moreover, chemotherapy is highly toxic to the liver, and certain tumors do not respond well to it anyway. In some such cases, an interventional radiologist can treat the tumors by disrupting their blood supply, which they need if they are to continue to grow. In this procedure, called radioembolization, the radiologist accesses the liver with a fine needle, threaded through one of the patient’s blood vessels. The radiologist then inserts tiny radioactive “seeds” into the blood vessels that supply the tumors. In the days and weeks following the procedure, the radiation emitted from the seeds destroys the vessels and directly kills the tumor cells in the vicinity of the treatment.
Radioisotopes emit subatomic particles that can be detected and tracked by imaging technologies. One of the most advanced uses of radioisotopes in medicine is the positron emission tomography (PET) scanner, which detects the activity in the body of a very small injection of radioactive glucose, the simple sugar that cells use for energy. The PET camera reveals to the medical team which of the patient’s tissues are taking up the most glucose. Thus, the most metabolically active tissues show up as bright “hot spots” on the images. PET can reveal some cancerous masses because cancer cells consume glucose at a high rate to fuel their rapid reproduction.
76
Define half life.
Physical half-life is the amount of time it takes for 50% of the radioisotope to become stable. (seconds to years)
77
What is the half life for carbon-14?
5,730 years
78
Define valence shell.
A valence shell is an atom’s outermost electron shell for sharing, gaining, or losing electrons.
79
Define octet rule.
A valence shell is complete when it contains 8 electrons.
80
Describe how valence electrons form chemical bonds.
If the valence shell is full, the atom is stable; meaning its electrons are unlikely to be pulled away from the nucleus by the electrical charge of other atoms. If the valence shell is not full, the atom is reactive; meaning it will tend to react with other atoms in ways that make the valence shell full.
81
Know the number of valence shell electrons for the first 20 atom.
1. ) Hydrogen: 1
2. ) Helium: 2
3. ) Lithium: 1
4. ) Beryllium: 2
5. ) Boron: 3
6. ) Carbon: 4
7. ) Nitrogen: 5
8. ) Oxygen: 6
9. ) Fluorine: 7
10. ) Neon: 8
11. ) Sodium: 1
12. ) Magnesium: 2
13. ) Aluminum: 3
14. ) Silicon: 4
15. ) Phosphorous: 5
16. ) Sulfur: 6
17. ) Chlorine: 7
18. ) Argon: 8
19. ) Potassium: 1
20. ) Calcium: 2
82
Define ion.
An atom that has an electrical charge—whether positive or negative—is an ion.
83
How are ions formed?
But when an atom participates in a chemical reaction that results in the donation or acceptance of one or more electrons, the atom will then become positively or negatively charged. This happens frequently for most atoms in order to have a full valence shell, as described previously. This can happen either by gaining electrons to fill a shell that is more than half-full, or by giving away electrons to empty a shell that is less than half-full, thereby leaving the next smaller electron shell as the new, full, valence shell.
84
Define cation.
A positively charged ion is known as a cation.
85
Define anion.
A negatively charged ion is known as an anion.
86
Define molecule.
A more or less stable grouping of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds is called a molecule.
87
What does the molecular formula indicate?
Indicates the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up a molecule. The atoms that make up a molecule can be the same or they can be different (if the atoms are the same then it can only be a molecule and not a compound).
88
Define compound.
When a molecule is made up of two or more atoms of different elements, it is called a chemical compound.
89
How is a compound different from a molecule?
```
Molecule= Chemical bonds
Compound= Molecule of two or more atoms of different elements
```
90
How are free radicals formed?
A free radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired valence electron in the outermost energy shell.
91
What is a common example of a free radical?
Oxygen in the body that splits into single atoms and seeks to pair with unpaired electrons.
92
Define oxidative damage.
When free radicals scavenge the body to seek out other electrons so that they can become a pair-this causes damage to cells, proteins, and DNA by stealing their electrons.
93
Name the diseases caused by free radical damage.
- Atherosclerosis
- Cancer
- Inflammatory Joint Disease
- Asthma
- Diabetes
- Senile Dementia (Alzheimer's)
- Heart Disease
- Degenerative Eye Disease
94
What is the function of an antioxidant?
Protect the body from free radical damage by donating one of their own electrons, thereby safely interacting with free radicals and terminating the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged.
95
Name the common antioxidants.
Vitamins C and E.
96
Define a chemical bond.
Chemical bonds are energy relationships between the electrons of the reacting atoms.
97
Define ionic bond.
An ionic bond is an ongoing, close association between ions of opposite charge.
98
Define electrolyte.
Is a compound which produces ions when dissolved in a solution such as water. These ions have either a positive or negative electrical charge, which is why we refer to these compounds as electro-lytes.
99
Define covalent bond.
Unlike ionic bonds formed by the attraction between a cation’s positive charge and an anion’s negative charge, molecules formed by a covalent bond share electrons in a mutually stabilizing relationship.
100
Define nonpolar covalent bond.
The sharing of the negative electrons is relatively equal, as is the electrical pull of the positive protons in the nucleus of the atoms involved. This is why covalently bonded molecules that are electrically balanced in this way are described as nonpolar; that is, no region of the molecule is either more positive or more negative than any other.
101
Draw a molecule with a nonpolar covalent bond.
Draw once printed.
102
Define polar covalent bond.
writers. In chemistry, a polar molecule is a molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges. Polar molecules occur when atoms share electrons unequally, in polar covalent bonds.
The most familiar example of a polar molecule is water (Figure 2.10). The molecule has three parts: one atom of oxygen, the nucleus of which contains eight protons, and two hydrogen atoms, whose nuclei each contain only one proton. Because every proton exerts an identical positive charge, a nucleus that contains eight protons exerts a charge eight times greater than a nucleus that contains one proton. This means that the negatively charged electrons present in the water molecule are more strongly attracted to the oxygen nucleus than to the hydrogen nuclei. Each hydrogen atom’s single negative electron therefore migrates toward the oxygen atom, making the oxygen end of their bond slightly more negative than the hydrogen end of their bond.
103
Draw a molecule with a polar covalent bond.
Draw once printed.
104
Define electronegativity.
Is a measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons to itself.
105
Which atom in a polar covalent bond will have the most electronegativity?
The electronegativity increases from left to right in a row in the periodic table.
106
Define hydrogen bond.
A hydrogen bond is formed when a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (for example, the oxygen in the water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule.
107
Define cohesion.
Is the attraction between water molecules.
108
What causes surface tension?
The inward pulling of cohesive forces at the surface of water.
109
How is an inorganic compound different from an organic compound?
An inorganic compound is a substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen. A great many inorganic compounds do contain hydrogen atoms, such as water (H2O) and the hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by your stomach. In contrast, only a handful of inorganic compounds contain carbon atoms. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the few examples.
An organic compound, then, is a substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen. Organic compounds are synthesized via covalent bonds within living organisms, including the human body. Recall that carbon and hydrogen are the second and third most abundant elements in your body. You will soon discover how these two elements combine in the foods you eat, in the compounds that make up your body structure, and in the chemicals that fuel your functioning.
110
Name the most abundant inorganic compound in all living system.
Water
111
Define hydrophilic.
Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds.
112
Define hydrophobic.
Solutes that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bonds.
113
What happens when NaCl is placed in water?
Salt dissolves in water and it dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH-.
114
Define hydrolysis reaction.
In hydrolysis, a molecule of water disrupts a compound, breaking its bonds. The water is itself split into H and OH. One portion of the severed compound then bonds with the hydrogen atom, and the other portion bonds with the hydroxyl group. In hydrolysis, the covalent bond between two monomers is split by the addition of a hydrogen atom to one and a hydroxyl group to the other, which requires the contribution of one molecule of water.
115
Define dehydration reaction.
In dehydration synthesis, one reactant gives up an atom of hydrogen and another reactant gives up a hydroxyl group (OH) in the synthesis of a new product. In the formation of their covalent bond, a molecule of water is released as a byproduct. This is also sometimes referred to as a condensation reaction. (a) In dehydration synthesis, two monomers are covalently bonded in a reaction in which one gives up a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen atom. A molecule of water is released as a byproduct during dehydration reactions.
116
Define a mixture.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances, each of which maintains its own chemical identity.
117
What are three common liquid mixtures?
1. ) Solution
2. ) Colloid
3. ) Suspension
118
Define a solution.
In chemistry, a liquid solution consists of a solvent that dissolves a substance called a solute.
119
How do solutions appear?
An important characteristic of solutions is that they are homogeneous; that is, the solute molecules are distributed evenly throughout the solution.
120
Define a colloid.
A colloid is a mixture that is somewhat like a heavy solution.
121
How do colloids appear?
The solute particles consist of tiny clumps of molecules large enough to make the liquid mixture opaque (because the particles are large enough to scatter light). Familiar examples of colloids are milk and cream. In the thyroid glands, the thyroid hormone is stored as a thick protein mixture also called a colloid.
122
Define a suspension.
A suspension is a liquid mixture in which a heavier substance is suspended temporarily in a liquid, but over time, settles out.
123
How do suspensions appear?
A heavier substance is suspended temporarily in a liquid, but over time, settles out.
124
What is the most common suspension in the human body?
Red Blood Cells
125
Define a mole.
Is equal to its atomic weight or molecular weight of the atom or molecule in grams (=Avogadro's number 6.024E^23)
126
What does mol/L stand for?
Moles per liter
127
Define pH?
pH stands for the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration. A solution's acidity or alkalinity is expressed on the pH scale which runs from 0 to 14.
128
Define an acid.
An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
129
Define a base.
A base is a substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH–) in solution, or one that accepts H+ already present in solution.
130
Describe dissociation.
Notice that the crystals of sodium chloride dissociate not into molecules of NaCl, but into Na+ cations and Cl– anions, each completely surrounded by water molecules.
131
What is the range of the pH scale?
0-14
132
Is the pH scale logarithmic or numerical?
Logarithmic
133
How does the concentration of H+ ions change as you go from a pH of 0 to a pH of 1? From a pH of 1 to a pH of 3? From a pH of 8 to a pH of 4?
As an example, a pH 4 solution has an H+ concentration that is ten times greater than that of a pH 5 solution. That is, a solution with a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 5. The concept of pH will begin to make more sense when you study the pH scale, like that shown in Figure 2.17. The scale consists of a series of increments ranging from 0 to 14. A solution with a pH of 7 is considered neutral—neither acidic nor basic. Pure water has a pH of 7. The lower the number below 7, the more acidic the solution, or the greater the concentration of H+. The concentration of hydrogen ions at each pH value is 10 times different than the next pH. For instance, a pH value of 4 corresponds to a proton concentration of 10–4 M, or 0.0001M, while a pH value of 5 corresponds to a proton concentration of 10–5 M, or 0.00001M. The higher the number above 7, the more basic (alkaline) the solution, or the lower the concentration of H+. Human urine, for example, is ten times more acidic than pure water, and HCl is 10,000,000 times more acidic than water.
134
How does the concentration of OH-ions changes as you go from a pH of 14 to a pH of 13? From a pH of 12 to a pH of 10? From a pH of 5 to a pH of 9?
It decreases in intervals of ten times as the flashcard of H+ ions shows. Refer to previous concentration flashcard.
135
What is the narrow range of pH for blood?
7.35-7.45
136
A blood pH below 7.35 is called what?
For example, if there is even a slight decrease below 7.35 in the pH of a bodily fluid, the buffer in the fluid—in this case, acting as a weak base—will bind the excess hydrogen ions.
137
A blood pH above 7.45 is called what?
In contrast, if pH rises above 7.45, the buffer will act as a weak acid and contribute hydrogen ions.
138
Define buffer system.
The function of a buffer system is to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases.
139
Show the equation for the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system.
(sodium bicarbonate) + (strong acid) → (weak acid) + (salt)
| weak acid) + (strong base)→(sodium bicarbonate) + (water
140
Define a functional group.
A functional group is a group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds and tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit.
141
Make a list of the functional groups given and show their structural formula.
```
Hydroxl: —O—H
Carboxyl: R-C=0(upper)/-0-H (lower)
Amino: —N—H2
Methyl: —C—H3
Phosphate: —P—O42–
```
142
Define monomer.
However, some macromolecules are made up of several “copies” of single units called monomer (mono- = “one”; -mer = “part”). Like beads in a long necklace, these monomers link by covalent bonds to form long polymers (poly- = “many”).
143
Define polymer.
Any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules, called macromolecules, that are multiples of simpler chemical units called monomers.
144
What is primary function of carbohydrates in the body?
Carbohydrates serve as the major nutrients for cells.
145
Name the three elements that are found in carbohydrates.
A carbohydrate is a molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
146
What is the difference between a monosaccharide and a polysaccharide?
Monosaccharides: Simple Sugars
Polysaccharide: Complex Sugars
147
Give common examples of each. (Monosaccharide and Polysaccharide)
Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose
Polysaccharide: Sucrose, Cellulose, Starch
148
What is the common name for glucose in the body?
Dextrose, Glycogen
149
Draw glucose.
Draw after printed.
150
What is the common name for sucrose?
Table Sugar
151
What is the main polysaccharide in the body?
Glycogen
152
What are the two polysaccharides from plants?
Cellulose and Starches
153
What is the primary function of lipids in the body?
Fats serve as energy storage molecules in adipose tissue, phospholipids are major components of cell membranes, and steroids are major components of cell membranes and precursors for other steroid hormones, and prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness.
154
Name the three elements that are found in lipids.
C, H, O.
155
Name the components of a triglyceride.
This compound, which is commonly referred to as a fat, is formed from the synthesis of two types of molecules:
A glycerol backbone at the core of triglycerides, consists of three carbon atoms.
Three fatty acids, long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group and a methyl group at opposite ends, extend from each of the carbons of the glycerol.
156
What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?
Saturated fatty acid chains are straight.
| Unsaturated fatty acid chains are kinked.
157
What is the difference between a monounsaturated fat and a polyunsaturated fat?
These monounsaturated fatty acids are therefore unable to pack together tightly, and are liquid at room temperature.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double carbon bonds, and are also liquid at room temperature.
158
Name the components of a phospholipid.
As its name suggests, a phospholipid is a bond between the glycerol component of a lipid and a phosphorous molecule.
159
Define amphipathic.
An amphipathic molecule is one that contains both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.
160
What is the function of phospholipids?
Are a major component of cell membranes.
161
List the common sterols found in the body and give the function of each.
Cholesterol is an important component of bile acids, compounds that help emulsify dietary fats. In fact, the word root chole- refers to bile. Cholesterol is also a building block of many hormones, signaling molecules that the body releases to regulate processes at distant sites. Finally, like phospholipids, cholesterol molecules are found in the cell membrane, where their hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions help regulate the flow of substances into and out of the cell.
162
What are the two principal subclasses of eicosanoids?
Leukotrienes, eoxins
163
Name the fat soluble vitamins.
Dietary fat also assists the absorption and transport of the nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
164
Make a list of the functions of protein.
Proteins are used for:
- Structural Support
- Storage
- Transport of other substances
- Signaling from one part of the organism to another
- Movement
- Defense
- As enzymes
165
Name the four elements that are found in protein.
C, H, N, O
166
What are the monomers of a protein?
Amino Acids
167
How many different amino acids are there?
20
168
What are the three functional groups found on an amino acid?
Amino group and a carboxyl group, together with a variable side chain.
169
Draw the common structure for an amino acid showing the variable group.
Draw when printed.
170
Define a peptide bond.
The unique bond holding amino acids together is called a peptide bond. A peptide bond is a covalent bond between two amino acids that forms by dehydration synthesis.
171
Name the four levels of protein organization.
Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
172
How does an enzyme work?
According to the induced-fit model, the active site of the enzyme undergoes conformational changes upon binding with the substrate. Substrates approach active sites on enzyme. Substrates bind to active sites, producing an enzyme–substrate complex. Changes internal to the enzyme–substrate complex facilitate interaction of the substrates. Products are released and the enzyme returns to its original form, ready to facilitate another enzymatic reaction.
173
Name the five elements found in a nucleic acid.
C, H, N, O, P
174
Name the monomer of a nucleic acid.
Nucleotides
175
What are the three parts of a nucleotide?
1. ) 5-C sugar called ribose or deoxyribose
2. ) Phosphate group
3. ) 1 of 4 nitrogenous bases
176
Draw a nucleotide.
Draw when printed.
177
How is DNA different from RNA?
The nucleic acids differ in their type of pentose sugar. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is nucleotide that stores genetic information. DNA contains deoxyribose (so-called because it has one less atom of oxygen than ribose) plus one phosphate group and one nitrogen-containing base. The “choices” of base for DNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a ribose-containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic code as protein.
RNA contains ribose, one phosphate group, and one nitrogen-containing base, but the “choices” of base for RNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil. In contrast, RNA consists of a single strand of sugar-phosphate backbone studded with bases. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is created during protein synthesis to carry the genetic instructions from the DNA to the cell’s protein manufacturing plants in the cytoplasm, the ribosomes.
178
Name the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA. In RNA.
DNA: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
RNA: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil
179
Define a purine.
A purine is a nitrogen-containing molecule with a double ring structure, which accommodates several nitrogen atoms.
180
Define a pyrimidine.
A pyramidine is a nitrogen-containing base with a single ring structure.
181
Describe the double helix model.
Bonds formed by dehydration synthesis between the pentose sugar of one nucleic acid monomer and the phosphate group of another form a “backbone,” from which the components’ nitrogen-containing bases protrude. In DNA, two such backbones attach at their protruding bases via hydrogen bonds. These twist to form a shape known as a double helix. The sequence of nitrogen-containing bases within a strand of DNA form the genes that act as a molecular code instructing cells in the assembly of amino acids into proteins. Humans have almost 22,000 genes in their DNA, locked up in the 46 chromosomes inside the nucleus of each cell (except red blood cells which lose their nuclei during development). These genes carry the genetic code to build one’s body, and are unique for each individual except identical twins.
182
Define energy.
Is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms, but cannot be created or destroyed.
183
Name the two classes of energy.
Kinetic and Potential
184
How is kinetic energy different from potential energy?
In general, kinetic energy is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion. Imagine you are building a brick wall. The energy it takes to lift and place one brick atop another is kinetic energy—the energy matter possesses because of its motion. Once the wall is in place, it stores potential energy.
Potential energy is the energy of position, or the energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components. If the brick wall collapses, the stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy as the bricks fall.
185
Know the forms of kinetic energy and the forms of potential energy.
Kinetic: Radiant, thermal, sound, electrical and mechanical.
Potential: Gravitational, magnetic, electrical, chemical, and elastic potential energy.
186
Define a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions, in which chemical bonds are broken and formed, require an initial investment of energy. Kinetic energy, the energy of matter in motion, fuels the collisions of atoms, ions, and molecules that are necessary if their old bonds are to break and new ones to form. All molecules store potential energy, which is released when their bonds are broken.
187
Define reactant and product.
Reactant: reactant, the general term for the one or more substances that enter into the reaction.
Product: The one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction are called the product.
188
Name the forms of energy.
Four forms of energy essential to human functioning are: chemical energy, which is stored and released as chemical bonds are formed and broken; mechanical energy, which directly powers physical activity; radiant energy, emitted as waves such as in sunlight; and electrical energy, the power of moving electrons.
189
Define the first and second law of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases.
190
How are chemical reactions written?
A+B=AB
191
How are reactants and products written in an equation?
In a chemical equation, the reactants are written on the left, and the products are written on the right. The coefficients next to the symbols of entities indicate the number of moles of a substance produced or used in the chemical reaction.
192
Name the 5 types of chemical reactions important to the human body.
Combination, Decomposition, Single-replacement, double-replacement, combustion
193
Define exergonic reactions.
Chemical reactions that release more energy than they absorb are characterized as exergonic.
194
Define endergonic reactions.
In contrast, chemical reactions that absorb more energy than they release are endergonic.
195
How are anabolism and catabolism related to synthesis and decomposition reactions?
A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction that results in the synthesis (joining) of components that were formerly separate (Figure 2.12a). Again, nitrogen and hydrogen are reactants in a synthesis reaction that yields ammonia as the product. The general equation for a synthesis reaction is A + B→AB.
In the second example, ammonia is catabolized into its smaller components, and the potential energy that had been stored in its bonds is released. Such reactions are referred to as decomposition reactions. A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction that breaks down or “de-composes” something larger into its constituent parts (see Figure 2.12b). The general equation for a decomposition reaction is: AB→A+B .
196
Define reaction rate.
Is the measure of the change in concentration of the reactants or the change in concentration of the products per unit time.
197
Define activation energy.
The minimum quantity of energy which the reacting species must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction.
198
How does a catalyst affect activation energy?
The function of a catalyst is to lower the activation energy so that a greater proportion of the particles have enough energy to react. A catalyst can lower the activation energy for a reaction by: orienting the reacting particles in such a way that successful collisions are more likely.
199
What are the most important catalysts in the human body?
Enzymes
200
Why is the active site important on an enzyme?
Due to this jigsaw puzzle-like match between an enzyme and its substrates, enzymes are known for their specificity. In fact, as an enzyme binds to its substrate(s), the enzyme structure changes slightly to find the best fit between the transition state (a structural intermediate between the substrate and product) and the active site, just as a rubber glove molds to a hand inserted into it. This active-site modification in the presence of substrate, along with the simultaneous formation of the transition state, is called induced fit. Overall, there is a specifically matched enzyme for each substrate and, thus, for each chemical reaction; however, there is some flexibility as well. Some enzymes have the ability to act on several different structurally related substrates.
201
Define cofactor.
Is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst (a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction).
202
What are the different types of cofactors?
Inorganic Ions and Organic molecules
203
Does a catalyst alter the difference in potential energy?
Catalysts have no effect on the change in potential energy for a reaction.
204
Name the factors that affect enzyme activity.
Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.
205
Write out the overall equation for cellular respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O.
206
Do plant cells undergo cellular respiration?
Yes
207
Define ATP.
Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store and release energy.
208
What is the function of ATP in the body?
To store and release energy.
209
What are the three components of ATP?
ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the sugar, ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose.
210
Draw the structure of ATP.
Draw when printed.
211
Why do all organisms need ATP?
All organisms need ATP to provide the potential chemical energy that powers the chemical reactions that occur in their cells.
212
What are the two different ways that ATP are made?
The two ATP-producing processes can be viewed as glycolysis (the anaerobic part) followed by aerobic respiration (the oxygen-requiring part).
213
How do organisms get O2to their cells?
You get the oxygen your cells need from the air you breathe.
214
Define oxidation and reduction.
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.
| Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
215
Explain how redox reactions are involved in energy exchange.
They are chemical reactions where electrons are transferred between reactants which releases energy in the organic molecules. Oxidation, a substance loses electrons. Reduction, a substance gains electrons
216
Know the chemical equation for cellular respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
217
Why do the reactions of respiration occur step by step instead of all at once?
If the reactions of respiration occurred all at once, the sudden release of heat energy would harm or destroy cells.
218
What occurs in each of the four stages of cellular respiration?
The cellular respiration process includes four basic stages or steps: Glycolysis, which occurs in all organisms, prokaryotic and eukaryotic; the bridge reaction, which stets the stage for aerobic respiration; and the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain, oxygen-dependent pathways that occur in sequence in the mitochondria.
219
Where does glycolysis occur in a eukaryotic cell?
Cytoplasm
220
Where does the Krebs cycle occur in a eukaryotic cell?
Mitochondria
221
Where does the electron transport chain occur in a eukaryotic cell?
Mitochondria
222
Distinguish between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation as it pertains to cellular respiration.
The main difference between substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation is that substrate level phosphorylation is a direct phosphorylation of ADP with a phosphate group by using the energy obtained from a coupled reaction whereas oxidative phosphorylation is the production of ATP from the oxidized NADH and FADH .
223
Explain how exergonic oxidation of glucose is coupled to endergonic synthesis of ATP.
During the oxidation of glucose, NAD+ traps energy-rich electrons from glucose or food; these electrons are passed down the electron transport chain to oxygen, which powers ATP synthesis.
224
Give the end products of glycolysis.
The net end products of glycolysis are two Pyruvate, two NADH, and two ATP (A special note on the "two" ATP later).
225
Describe the location, molecules in and molecules out for the Krebs cycle.
The kreb cycle occurs in the mitochondria matrix and every acetyl CoA that enters the cycle, it turns one. For every glucose molecule that starts cellular respiration, 2 pyruvates are formed, forming 2 acetyl CoAs, this turning Kreb cycle twice. Reactants are acetyl CoA, NAD, FAD. Products are 2 ATP, CO2, NADH, FADH.
226
Give the end products of the Krebs cycle.
At the end of the Krebs cycle, the final product is oxaloacetic acid. This is identical to the oxaloacetic acid that begins the cycle.
227
Give the end products of the electron transport system.
The end products of the electron transport chain are water and ATP.
228
Define chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis is when ions move by diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane, such as the membrane inside mitochondria. Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane bound structure, down their electrochemical gradient
229
Define proton motive force.
Energy that is generated by the transfer of protons or electrons across an energy-transducing membrane and that can be used for chemical, osmotic, or mechanical work. Proton-motive force can be generated by a variety of phenomena including the operation of an electron transport chain, illumination of a purple membrane, and the hydrolysis of aTP by a proton atpase.
