Exam 02 2017-11-01 Flashcards
The Live in Your Own Skin Model - explain
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- Believe children’s gender brains are malleable:
- Encourage children to play with toys gendered to their sex assigned at birth
- Believe parents influence child’s gender dysphoria
- Employs combination of behavior modification, ecological interventions, and family restructuring (to have child “live in their own skin”)
- If at puberty child still expresses gender dysphoria, then they should be supported in transitioning (blockers and hormones)
The Live in Your Own Skin Model - cirtique
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- BAD: to foster shame, try to alter gender ID/expression
- The World Professional Association for Transgender health (WPATH), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the American Psychiatric Association (APA) all have issued statements telling mental health professionals to not use this model.
The Watchful Waiting Model - explain
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- Relies on “persisters and desisters” of gender dysphoria
- Rationale for waiting (social transition) until adolescence
- 1) should experience natal sex puberty to decide if they’re “really” trans
- 2) transitioning young could create “cognitive constriction”
- 3) socially transitioning young could prevent them from having a “realistic understanding” of penis=boy, vagina=girl
The Watchful Waiting Model - critque
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- Used worldwide, but a cautious and careful model
- Many contemporary families in the Netherlands don’t want to have their children wait for clinical approval for their children to socially transition
- Not that they don’t value clinicians, but because there is evidence that young children will thrive when they can live in their authentic gender
The Gender Affirmative Model - explain
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- Basic premise of gender affirmative model: (this is a direct quote)
• Gender variations are not disorders.
• Gender presentations are diverse and varied across cultures, requiring cultural sensitivity.
• Gender involves an interweaving, over time, of biology; development and socialization; and culture and context.
• Gender may be fluid; it is not always binary.
• If present, individual psychological/psychiatric problems are more often than not secondary to negative interpersonal and cultural reactions to a child.
• Gender pathology lies more in the culture than in the child
The Gender Affirmative Model - critique
(9/20: Ehrensaft)
- Critiqued because people don’t trust kids to “reliably communicate,” and puts too much weight into child self-reporting
- But parent(s), mental, and medical professionals assist in informed determinations and pathways for treatment
The Gender Affirmative Model - therapeutic goals
(9/20: Ehrensaft) (a direct quote) • Facilitating an authentic gender self • Alleviating gender stress or distress • Building gender resilience • Securing social supports
Transgender
Sex assigned at birth and gender identity don’t match
Cisgender
Sex assigned at birth and gender identity do match
Gender non-conforming, gender non-binary
- Not male, female, or gendered (gender identity)
- OR
- Gender identity male/female, but gender expression could be neither masculine or feminine
Social transition
Changing name, gender pronouns, clothing, hairstyle
Physical or medical transition
Receiving hormone therapy (hormone blockers, testosterone, estrogen)
Etiology of sexual orientation: Genetics
(9/25) R & S)
Sexual orientation could be somewhat genetic: x chromosome-linked gene, hair whorl and handedness, 2D:4D ratio (gay)
Etiology of sexual orientation: Environment
(9/25) R & S)
- Cultural and biological
- Atypical sex hormones during fetal development, hormone pills (progesterone), cultural norms, fraternal birth order (more older brothers a boy has=greater chance of being gay)
Components of sexual orientation
(9/25) R & S)
- Attraction
- Identity
- Behavior
Sexual Attraction
(9/25) R & S)
- Component of sexual orientation
- Desires, sexual fantasies, arousal (and how much)
- Different categorization (genitals, gender identity, “same-gender-to-other-gender spectrum”)
Sexual Identity
(9/25) R & S)
- Component of sexual orientation
- EX: “lesbian,” “biesxual,” “asexual”
- Most culturally defined (EX from reading: younger men: sex with men, later with women, etc.)
Sexual Behavior
(9/25) R & S)
- Component of sexual orientation
- Actions, don’t always line up with attraction and/or identity
- EX: “performative bisexuality” engaging in bisexual behaviors for other people, not your own pleasure. (girls smooching other girls for guy’s pleasure, but not attracted to each other)
Use of essentialism in political and legal situations
(9/25) R & S)
- Genetic research
- Biological determinism
Genetic research
(9/25) R & S)
Use of essentialism in political and legal situations
- Genetic research=essentialist approach
- Believe sexual orientation is an inherently biological difference
Biological determinism
(9/25) R & S)
Use of essentialism in political and legal situations
- Used argument that women are different in ___ way, but arguments for LGBT people in this way is invalid when preventing rights/accessibility (sexuality is fluid)
Masturbation in infancy
(9/27: L & P)
- Infants have physiological sexual responses
- (but not much masturbation because of motor abilities- usually accidental)
Masturbation in childhood
(9/27: L & P)
- 2-9 years old often touch their genitals (better motor skills), sexual interest masturbation more prevalent
- Earlier conversations with caregivers will lead to more conversations later
- Parent ignoring child’s arousal could intensify sexual arousal and/or lead to shame/guilt
Masturbation in adolescence
(9/27: L & P)
- masturbation is common and healthy, more research than childhood masturbation
Sexual encounters and sex play before puberty
(9/27: L & P)
Retrospective research on children’s sexual behavior with other children
– High percentage report playing sexual game in childhood (high percentage of games involved touching genitals)
- - - Cross-sex encounters were more likely to involve coercion/persuasion
– Environment/atmosphere had greatest influence on overall response, as opposed to extent of sexual experience
Contemporary research conclusions about Freud’s latency period
(9/27: L & P)
- Part of Freud’s psychosexual theory: sex drives decrease between 6-12
- Researchers question validity: researchers say sexual drives don’t cease to exist, they just become hidden from peers and parents
Sex positive approaches to adolescent sexuality
(10/2: Harden) (Friday Night Lights)
- Need to frame adolescent consensual sexual activity as developmentally normative and potentially healthy
- Sex positive approach: consent, health, agency, validates it is okay, validates sexual minority experiences
- Enforcing myth that perspective of adolescent sexuality is a “risk” presumes best alternative is abstinence and ignorance
- Controversy of non-normative behavior and interests being deviant
- Actually normal developmental behavior
- Problematic to label children as innocent and limit their sexual expression
Sexting
(10/2: Myth 48, 276)
- Sexting does not lead to more sex
- Usually people have sexual debut, then sexting
- Sexting is not wide-spread (not “sweeping phenomenon”)
- Sexting is a marker for other risky sexual behaviors
- If involves coercion, tends to have negative impact
- Some legal issues (when >18), few psychological impacts
Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents
(10/4: TYWTAL)
- Intersections between sexual orientation, gender identity, race, and religion
- Risk and protective factors
Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents: Intersections between sexual orientation, gender identity, race, and religion
Minority Stress Theory
- How identities intersecting may create more marginalized experiences
- chronic stress from stigmatized identities multiplying with multiple identities: discrimination, isolation, victimization, negative social attitudes
Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents: Risk and protective factors
(10/4: Martos, et al., R & F)
- Youth coming out younger ages (during human development stages) when characterized by strong peer influence and victimization
- Risk: family conflict/rejection, child maltreatment, depression (suicide), lack of institutionalized protections, biased-based bullying
- Protective: school policies/programs, anti-discrimination laws, family/peer acceptance/support, GSAs, LGBT inclusive curricula, ability to come out
Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents: Risk factors
(10/4: Martos, et al., R & F)
- Risk: family conflict/rejection, child maltreatment, depression (suicide), lack of institutionalized protections, biased-based bullying
Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents: Protective factors
(10/4: Martos, et al., R & F)
- Protective: school policies/programs, anti-discrimination laws, family/peer acceptance/support, GSAs, LGBT inclusive curricula, ability to come out
Minority Stress Theory
(Psychological experiences of LGBTQ adolescents: Intersections between sexual identities)
- How identities intersecting may create more marginalized experiences
- chronic stress from stigmatized identities multiplying with multiple identities: discrimination, isolation, victimization, negative social attitudes
Psychology of sexual debut
(9/9)
- As compared to virginity: sex positive, not just penile-vaginal intercourse
- (EX from class: kissing and touching breasts defined as sex for many adolescents)
Psychology of virginity
- One time event
- Penile-vaginal intercourse [between cis-straight people]
Carpenter’s ways of framing virginity
(10/9: Myth 19, 110)
- 1 - gift
- 2 - process
- 3 - stigma
Carpenter’s ways of framing virginity: Gift
(10/9: Myth 19, 110)
- usually woman “giving” virginity, man (someone “special”) taking; has value, reciprocate gift (woman giving, man giving commitment)
Carpenter’s ways of framing virginity: Process
(10/9: Myth 19, 110)
- Process: social transition, finding sexual self, learning about themselves
Carpenter’s ways of framing virginity: Stigma
(10/9: Myth 19, 110)
- Stigma: something to get rid of
Statutory rape
(Myth 49)
- Criminalizes voluntary sexual acts involving minor that would be legal if not for the younger person’s age
- Premise: until certain age (depends on state- usually 16 or 18), young people can’t give consent
Romeo & Juliet laws
- Laws that take age of consent into account (varies by state), minimum age of consent, age difference, and legal adulthood
- EX: two people under age of consent having consensual sex; or people close in age having sex, but just over or under the age of consent; usually cis-straight couples
Sexual double standard
(10/23: Myth 20, 47)
- Men having sex with lots of women seen as positive; women having lots of sex with men seen as “sluts”
- Affects men and women (negative for women having “a lot” of sex, negative for men having “little” sex) [probably specifically cis people…]
- [Cis] women’s job to not get pregnant (Stat from Rachel: Women spend average -
⅔ of life preventing pregnancy, 3 years trying to get pregnant)
– – (influences the orgasm gap)
Teen pregnancy as a social problem
- Teen births more concentrated in low-income families
- less access to contraceptives, access to education, socioeconomic status passed through generations
- lots of blame/shame directed at young girls
Trends over time in rates of unwanted pregnancy, teen pregnancy, abortion, & contraceptive use
- Rates decreasing over time: unwanted pregnancy and teen pregnancy
- Rates increasing over time: contraceptive use (and more than one)
Ways to describe a pregnancy
10/11) Below terms can overlap - Intended - Unintended - Mistimed - Unplanned - Unwanted
Ways to describe a pregnancy: Intended
(10/11)
Terms can overlap
– Wanted, planned, or meant
Ways to describe a pregnancy: Unintended
(10/11)
Terms can overlap
- “Unplanned,” “unintended”
- Not necessarily bad
Ways to describe a pregnancy: Mistimed
(10/11) Terms can overlap - (Subcategory of unplanned) - Usually earlier than wanted - Usually adolescent pregnancies
Ways to describe a pregnancy: Unplanned
(10/11)
Terms can overlap
- “Unintended,” “Unplanned”
- Large category (“surprise”)
Ways to describe a pregnancy: Unwanted
(10/11)
Terms can overlap
- Not wanting a kid at all
- Most often people in their 30s who are done having kids (and think they’re infertile)
Effective prevention of unintended pregnancy
(10/11)
Using multiple forms of birth control (EX: the pill and a condom; IUD and a condom)
Masturbation
(10/23: Myth 23, 129)
- Most stigmatized sexual behavior for most age groups (after violent acts)
- Stigma influenced by: myths, religion, cultural beliefs, not for procreation
- Myth that people who masturbate most are not having partnered sex
- Different experience than partnered sex
- Encouraged by sex therapists for overcoming sexual problems
Masturbation: Research
(10/23: Myth 23, 129)
Research indicates
- Healthy for sexual functioning, sexual satisfaction in relationships (many women learn how to orgasm from masturbation)
- Healthy practice, lifelong pleasure before, during relationships
How to evaluate construct validity of a scale: questions to ask
(10/23: masturbation scale; 9/27: Extra session)
- “Maybe it’s not measuring this construct” (look at specific questions)
- “Good construct for who?” (Ex: masturbation scale: maybe high for cis men/women, but not representative for construct)
How to evaluate construct validity of a scale: To look at
(10/23: masturbation scale; 9/27: Extra session)
- Likert-type scale: 1-5 v. 1-10: better when there are fewer intervals
- EX: by just looking at the items, can you guess correctly what the scale is measuring?
How to evaluate construct validity of a scale: Reverse Coding
(10/23: masturbation scale; 9/27: Extra session)
- Clarity, helps with accuracy, helps omit participants who didn’t pay attention
Sexual scripts
(10/23: Y & S, 266-293)
- (In Class 10/2): How we should be behaving in sexual/romantic situations, sequence of sexual behaviors (EX: kissing, then intercourse)
- General pattern, but individual diversity makes sexual scripts ambiguous, varied, and even context-dependent (hook-up v. relationship)
Sexual scripts: influences
(10/23: Y & S, 266-293) (In Class 10/2)
Cultural
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Sexual scripts: Cultural
(10/23: Y & S, 266-293) (In Class 10/2)
- Cultural: social clock (generational), heteronormativity [and cissexism], highly gendered
Sexual scripts: Intrapersonal
(10/23: Y & S, 266-293) (In Class 10/2)
- internal psychological state that leads to arousal
Sexual scripts: Interpersonal
(10/23: Y & S, 266-293) (In Class 10/2)
- shared signals leading to sex: body language, words
Hooking up
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- Media depicts hookup culture as reflecting relationships, or new pattern in young people, just a cultural shift
- Hookup conversation: hookups a popular conversation topic, social life and sex life overlap
Hookup conversation
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- hookups a popular conversation topic, social life and sex life overlap
Influences of hookup culture
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- Race and ethnicity
- Income, class, religion
- Sexual orientation
- Hypervisibility
- Outsider within
- Performative bisexuality
Influences of hookup culture: Race and ethnicity
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- Hierarchy of sexual desirability
- women, Black men hypersexualized [in different ways, of course] ← more likely to be lower income
Influences of hookup culture: Income, class, religion
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- People with lower income less likely to participate in hookup culture, more likely to put education first
- Women who attend religious services less likely to hookup
- Men who attend religious services more likely to hookup
Influences of hookup culture: Sexual orientation
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- Performative bisexuality (engaging in bisexual behaviors for other people, not your own pleasure. [girls smooching other girls for guy’s pleasure, but not attracted to each other])
- Queer double standard (??)
- Queer college students often thinking campus will be queer haven
Influences of hookup culture: Hypervisibility
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- presence on social media and on campus
Influences of hookup culture: Outsider within
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- “Abstainers” don’t partake
Influences of hookup culture: Performative bisexuality
- engaging in bisexual behaviors for other people, not your own pleasure.
- EX: girls smooching other girls for guy’s pleasure, but not attracted to each other
Opting out of hooking up
(10/30: Myth 33 and/or Wade)
- People abstain because they didn’t find it attractive, focus on education,
- People can opt out of hookup culture, but may still be hooking up with people
- Can exclude people, can affect social life, doesn’t mean people aren’t having good sex
Orgasm gap
(10/23: Myth 20, 117; Myth 21, 123)
- Sexual double standard
- Women less likely to have an orgasm
- In partnered, heterosexual encounters, men orgasm more than women; usually not simultaneously
Sex positivity
Concept from Exam 1
(8/30: Williams, 1(2))
- sex positive approach means being open, communicative, and accepting of individual’s differences
- allow for wide range of sexual expression that considers sexual identities, orientations, and behaviors; gender presentation
- accessible health care and education
- multiple important dimensions of human diversity
Sex & gender
Concepts from Exam 1
(9/13: A & D, 8)
- gender: socio-legal status
- sex: also social construct! (genitals as assessment of “male” or “female”; intersex: socially constructed)
- sex: chromosomes, reproductive system, reproductive process, anatomy
- gender: personal care practices, family roles, clothing, etc.
Construct validity
Concept from Exam 1 (9/4, 9/27) - abstract psychological phenomenon - inferred from observable behavior EX: love, attraction, engagement -- need to be specific in how you're going to measure (unlike a ruler) - did the authors measure or manipulate ~all facets of the concept~ that they claim to be measuring or manipulating? - can't measure directly
Internal validity
Concept from Exam 1
(9/4, 9/27)
- all about causation
- allows researchers to state that they’ve identified causal associations
Needs random assignment
- was the IV the sole cause of changes in the DV
EX:
- high: well controlled experiment (ideally with random assignment)
- medium: correlational study with statistical controls
- low: did not rule out potential third-variable explanations
External validity
Concept from Exam 1
(9/4, 9/27)
- ~generalizability~ to population of interest (not always everyone)
- are the results true for other: participants? settings? times?
EX:
- high: large, random selection of participants from population of interest; procedure similar to situation of interest
- low: small convenience sample with major differences from population of interest; procedure different from situation of interest
Sampling methods
Concepts from Exam 1 (9/3: Lehmiller, 31-45) - Sample Selection - Convenience Sample - Random Selection
Sample Selection and importance
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 32)
- find target population first, then chose sample
Convenience Sample and importance
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 33)
- participants who are most readily accessible for research purpose(s)
– quick and easy study, but not always representative of a whole population
Random Selection and importance
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 33)
- finding all of target population, then randomly selecting/contacting a subset to participate
– important for high internal validity and high external validity
Experiments and their importance
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 32, 42)
- Experiment strengths: precise control of variables; ability to infer cause and effect
- Experiment limitations: not possible or ethical to implement for all research questions; several threats to external validity; hard for a diverse sample
Experiments and strengths
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 32, 42)
- Precise control of variables; ability to infer cause and effect
Experiments and their limitations
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 32, 42)
- not possible or ethical to implement for all research questions; several threats to external validity; hard for a diverse sample
Causal inferences
Concept from Exam 1
(9/3: Lehmiller, 42)
- reaching the conclusion that one factor actually causes/influences an outcome
- lots of reliance on self-reports in sex research; IV caused change in DV
Leonore Tiefer’s 5 Normality Types
Concept from Exam 1 (Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30) 1) Subjective 2) Statistical 3) Idealistic 4) Cultural 5) Clinical
Leonore Tiefer’s Normality Type: Subjective
Concept from Exam 1
(Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30)
“are they the same as me because I’m normal?”
Leonore Tiefer’s Normality Type: Statistical
Concept from Exam 1 (Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30) - Common = normal - Uncommon = abnormal - cut-off numbers change
Leonore Tiefer’s Normality Type: Idealistic
Concept from Exam 1
(Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30)
- Does it fit ideal of perfect person?
Leonore Tiefer’s Normality Type: Cultural
Concept from Exam 1
(Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30)
- Is it considered deviant or not in your culture?
Leonore Tiefer’s Normality Type: Clinical
Concept from Exam 1 (Yarber & Sayad, 20) (in-class 8/30) - Healthy = normal - unhealthy = abnormal
Sexual Orientation Terminology
Concept from Exam 1
(Yarber & Sayad, 16)
- sexual orientation: pattern of sexual and emotional attraction based on the gender of one’s partner
(in-class 8/30)
Considered affirmative (APA)
- gay, lesbian, bisexual, same-gender couple, same-sex couple, pansexual, asexual,
Proceed with caution (only if someone has used it themself)
- queer
Gender Identity Terminology
Concept from Exam 1 (Yarber & Sayad, 16) Considered affirmative (APA) - cisgender, trans, transgender Proceed with caution (only if someone has used it themself) - queer, genderqueer, transsexual
Sexual Orientation
Concept from Exam 1
(Yarber & Sayad, 16)
- pattern of sexual and emotional attraction based on the gender of one’s partner
Psychology of penile circumcision
Concept from Exam 1
(9/11: Myth 3, 19)
- acceptable because of cultural/religious roots
- low risk (when a medical professional does it), and should be done in the “newborn period”
- ethical debate: babies can’t give informed consent, but parents legally can
- impacts on sex: some adults who have been circumcised as adults said it was the same as before, some said easier to reach orgasm, some said less pleasurable
– not for health reasons, but should be available to parents
– parents should have more scientific research on it (from both sides)
