Ex2 Flashcards
(180 cards)
1
Q
Describe parathyroid glands
A
- small endocrine glands
- yellowish-brown flat ovoid space
- posterior aspect of thyroid
- 4 usually
- cells densely packed
- produce parathyroid hormone
2
Q
the 2 types of Cells of Parathyroid Gland
A
- Chief cells
- Oxyphil cells
3
Q
Function of Chief cells
A
synthesize & secrete PTH
4
Q
Function of Oxyphil cells
A
unknown
5
Q
PTH is _____ based hormone
A
Amino acid based hormone
6
Q
PTH binds to
A
target cell G-protein coupled receptors
7
Q
second messenger systems of PTH are
A
cAMP & phospholipase
8
Q
function of PTH
A
- Antagonist to calcitonin hormone from thyroid
- Increases blood Ca2+ level
9
Q
PTH effect on bones
A
stimulates osteoclasts (breakdown bone matrix)
10
Q
PTH effect on kindey
A
Ca2+ resorption & PO43- excretion
11
Q
PTH effect on Intestine
A
Ca2+ absorption by mucosal cells
12
Q
What’s required for absorbtion of calcium derived from ingested food in the intestine
A
Calcitriol, Vitamin D3, the active form of Vitamin D
13
Q
What makes active Vitamin D
A
Vitamin D (inactive form) from diet (D2, or ergocalciferol) or sun, UVB on skin (7-dehydrocholesterol precursor => D3, or cholecalciferol)
14
Q
In the liver: vitamin D picks up ____ and become ____
A
picks up extra oxygen and hydrogen molecules to become 25-hydroxyvitamin D
15
Q
what’s the major circulating metabolite form of vitamin D
A
25-hydroxyvitamin D
16
Q
what happens to 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the kidney
A
stimulated by PTH, it’s is converted to Calcitriol (active hormonal form) or 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D
17
Q
how 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D is made?
A
via enzymatic addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH)
18
Q
what’s the effect of 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D in the intestine
A
Ca2+ absorption by intestinal mucosal cells
19
Q
Decreased blood Ca²⁺, results in excitability of nervous system, i.e. tetany, muscle twitches, & convulsions. known as:
A
Hypocalcemia
20
Q
Increase blood Ca²⁺, results in depression of nervous system, kidney stones & soft tissue calcification,
A
Hypercalcemia
21
Q
↓ PTH: trauma or gland removal; ↓ blood Ca²⁺, i.e. tetany
A
Hypoparathyroidism
22
Q
↑ PTH: tumor; ↑ blood Ca²⁺, ↓ bone density, i.e. metastatic calcification, osteitis fibrosa cystica.
A
Hyperparathyroidism
23
Q
Parathyroid hormone negative feedback loop
A
24
Q
Location of the thymus gland
A
deep to sternum
25
Which gland undergoes involution
Thymus
26
the site of T-lymphocyte maturation
Thymus
27
what does the thymus gland secrets?
* thymic hormones – thymopoietins, thymic factor, & thymosins
28
what makes up the cortex of the thymus gland
thymocytes (T-lymphocyte precursor cells)
29
what does the thymus medulla contains
thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles and fewer thymocytes
30
the function of thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles
T-cell destruction sites
31
what kind of immune response is the T-cells involved in
cellular (cell-mediated)
32
How many lobes does the thymus glad have
2
33
describe the thymus lobes (what is it devided into)
* each lobe is divided into **multiple lobules**
* each lobule **has a cortex** (outer part) & **medulla** (inner part)
34
what are the Hassal corpuscles
whorls of reticular epithelial cells
35
the function of Hassal corpuscles
destroy T-lymphocytes capable of attacking body’s own cells thereby preventing autoimmune disease
36
where are Hassal corpuscles located
in medulla portion of lobules.
37
what happens in the cortex of the thymus lobule
rapidly dividing T-cells (densely packed)
38
what kind of cells are found in a fewer numbers in the medulla of the thymus lobule than in the cortex
T-cells & some thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles
39
where does hymocytes originates
from bone marrow stem cells
40
immature T-cells migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus via
Blood
41
type of cells have granules that contain thymus hormones
Kulchitsky cells
42
what type of cells found in the thymus
stroma, reticular epitherlia, and thrymocytes
43
cells that produce thymus hormones
reticular epithelial cells
44
Cells that makes CT of organs
stromal cells
45
hematopoietic derived precursors to T-lymphocytes
thymocytes
46
thymus hormones released by Kulchitsky cells cause
T-lymphocytes to become mature & immunocompetent
47
Thymus Gland Hormones are based on (what type of hormones)
amino acid based peptide hormones
48
thymus gland hormons induce
lymphocyte (T-cell) maturation (differentiation) and immunocompetency
1. Thymopoietins
2. Thymic Factor
3. Thymosins
49
Thymic Hormones Negative Feedback Loop
50
where's the pancreas located
* Located partially behind stomach
* Head encircled by duodenum
* Tail abuts spleen
51
descibe the shape of hte pancreas
* Tadpole-shaped
52
does the pancreas have endocrine, exocrine, or both function(s)?
Both
53
what cells that have exocine cells in
* **Acinar** cells surround ducts
54
is the pancreatic juice a result of endocrine or exocrine function of the pancreas
exocine
55
what does the pancreatic juice contains
* digestive enzymes
56
what pancreatic enzyme breaks down carbohydrates
pancreatic amylase
57
what pancreatic enzyme breaks down fat
lipase
58
what pancreatic enzyme breaks down proteins
proteases: trypsin & chymotrypsin
59
what pancreatic enzyme breaks down nucleic acids
nucleases
60
where does the endoctine fuction take place in the pancreas
* Islets of Langerhan cells
61
type of cells that produce Glucagon in the pancreas
Alpha
62
type of cells that produce Insulin & Amylin
Beta cells
63
cells secrete Somatostatin
Delta cells
64
what kind of hormone is insulin
* amino acid based hormone
65
describe the chemical strucure of the insulin
* 2 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds
* derived from “clipping” of proinsulin molecule
66
Insulin function
1. **lowers blood glucose** level
2. stimulates membrane **transport of glucose** (muscle & fat cells, not brain, liver, or kidney) **into** target **cell**
3. stimulates **amino acid uptake** into target cell
67
Insulin Negative Feedback Loop
68
Intracellular Effects of Insulin Stimulates
* formation of glycogen from glucose in liver & muscle
* protein synthesis from amino acids in muscle
* fatty acid synthesis in liver
69
Intracellular Effects of Insulin Inhibits
* glycogenolysis in liver & muscle
* protein catabolism in muscle
* lipolysis in adipose tissue
* gluconeogenesis (aa & fats to glucose) in liver
70
hormone co-secreted with insulin by beta cells
Amylin
71
that type of hormone is amylin
* peptide hormone
72
function of amylin
* slows gastric emptying and promotes satiety
* prevents post-prandial blood glucose spikes
73
peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells in the pancreas
Glucagon
74
Glucagon functions
* raises blood glucose level
* lowers blood amino acid levels
75
Glucagon's major target (organ)
liver
76
hormone stimulates glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis
Glucagon
77
Glucagon Negative Feedback Loop
78
Somatostatin is secteted by
Delta cells in the pancreas, hypothalamus and the GI tract
79
Somatostatin inhibits
release of insulin and glucagon from the pancreas
release of growth hormone anterior pituitary
GI hormones
80
What type of diabetes causes
* insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
Type 1
81
What type of diabetes causes
* insulin secretion decreased or insulin resistance
type 2
82
What type of diabetes
* may use medications to enhance insulin release or reduce resistance
type 2
83
What type of diabetes
* total absence of insulin activity
* fats mobilized (lipidemia, or lipemia)
type 1
84
What type of diabetes
* used for alternative fuel source
* ketoacidosis, from fatty acid metabolism
Type 1
85
What type of diabetes causes
* polyuria, polydipsia, & polyphagia
Type 1
86
what type of diabetes
* non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
Type 2
87
what type of diabetes
* can be managed by exercise, weight loss, & healthy diet
Type 2
88
Adrenal Gland AKA
suprarenal glands
89
what does the adrenal gland look like, and where is it located?
pyramid-shaped, on top of kidneys
90
name the layers of the adrenal cortex (outer portion)
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculate
Zona reticularis
91
define Zona glomerulosa
outer layer, produces mineralocorticoids, i.e. aldosterone
92
define Zona fasciculate
middle layer, produces glucocorticoids, i.e. cortisol
93
define Zona reticularis
inner layer; produces gonadocorticoids, i.e. weak androgens, small amounts of estrogens & progestogens
94
where are Mineralcorticoids produced
* Zona glomerulosa
95
what does Mineralcorticoids regulate
concentrations of Na⁺ & K⁺
96
\_\_\_\_\_ most potent Mineralcorticoids
Aldosterone
97
what does Mineralcorticoids stimulate
* Stimulates Na⁺ reabsorption & K⁺ secretion
* Stimulus for secretion: ↓ Na⁺, or ↑ K⁺ in blood and ↓ blood volume & pressure
98
Mineralcorticoids Negative Feedback Loop
Remember Na⁺ increases blood pressure and K⁺ lowers it.
99
what regulates Aldosterone secretion
ACTH
Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS)
Plasma concentration of K⁺ & Na⁺
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
100
↑ ACTH w/ stress causes
* ↑ aldosterone secretion by zona glomerulosa.
101
explain Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS):
↓ BP or BV →
**juxtaglomerular** apparatus cells of kidney **release renin** →
converts **angiotensinogen to angiotensin I** → In lung capillaries primarily but not exclusively, ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme converts **angiotensin I into angiotensin II** (causes vasoconstriction & ↑BP) →
**Release of aldosterone** (zona glomerulosa- outer layer) cells of adrenal cortex →
**Na⁺ reabsorption from kidney** tubules into blood. H₂O moves with Na⁺ and therefore **increases blood volume & pressure**.
102
Plasma concentration ↑ K or ↓ Na causes
↑ aldosterone secretion by zona glomerulosa
103
↑ BP causes secretion of ____ by heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
104
ANP causes
blocks renin & aldosterone secretion and inhibits renin-angiotensin mechanism, therefore ↓ BP.
105
Glucocorticoids are made in
* Zona fasciculate
106
Glucocorticoids regulates
* blood glucose & BP
107
\_\_\_\_\_ is primary glucocorticoid in humans
cortisol
108
glucocorticoids function
* **provokes gluconeogenesis** during severe stress
* **enhances epinephrine** vasoconstrictive effects
109
Glucocorticoids Negative Feedback Loop
1. ) Adrenal cortex pathway; Hypothalamus produces CRH to stimulate the release of ACTH from Anterior Pituitary (corticotropes) → Adrenal cortex, and
2. ) Adrenal medulla pathway (“Fight or Flight”)- Hypothalamus stimulation of Ventrolateral medulla (reticular formation) of Brain Stem → Sympathetic preganglionic neurons in lateral horns of spinal cord [T5-9 outflow (greater splanchnic nerve pathway, and T10,11 outflow (lesser splanchnic nerve pathway)] → Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells.
110
Gonadocorticoid are produced in
* Zona reticularis
111
Examples of Gonadocorticoids
weak androgens & small amounts of estrogens & progestogens
112
Gonadocorticoid function
* provide estrogens after menopause
113
Gonadocorticoids Negative Feedback Loop
114
what's inner part of adrenal gland?
Adrenal Medulla
115
Adrenal Medulla is consist of
modified postganglionic neurons
116
modified postganglionic neurons AKA
chromaffin cells
117
chromaffin cells surround
capillaries & sinusoids
118
chromaffin cells get their innervation (stimulation) from
preganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers lead to them directly from CNS (lateral horns of spinal cord)
119
chromaffin cells secretes
epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), & small amounts of dopamine
120
adrenal medulla produces unequal amount of neurotransmitter: Epinephrine (\_\_\_\_%) & Norepinephrine (\_\_\_\_%)
Epinephrine (80%) & Norepinephrine (20%)
121
general types of epinephrine receptors
alpha adrenergic: causes vasoconstriction
beta adrenergic: causes vasodilation
122
Epinephrine function
* stimulate metabolic activities
* bronchodilation
* increased heart rate
* increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, heart & lungs
123
Norepinephrine function
peripheral vasoconstriction
Increase blood pressure
124
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine Negative Feedback Loop
1. ) Adrenal cortex pathway; Hypothalamus produces CRH to stimulate the release of ACTH from Anterior Pituitary (corticotropes) → Adrenal cortex, and
2. ) Adrenal medulla pathway (“Fight or Flight”)- Hypothalamus stimulation of Ventrolateral medulla (reticular formation) of Brain Stem → Sympathetic preganglionic neurons in lateral horns of spinal cord [T5-9 outflow (greater splanchnic nerve pathway, and T10,11 outflow (lesser splanchnic nerve pathway)] → Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells.
125
disorder described as ↓ glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids. ↓ blood glucose & Na⁺. Hypotension, weight loss, & bronze pigmentation
Addison’s
126
Disorder described as ↑ glucocorticoids & mineralcorticoids; steroid diabetes (↑ blood glucose), edema & hypertension. Moon face (swelling), and buffalo hump (fat redistribution)
Cushings
127
any situation that upsets homeostasis & threatens one’s physical & emotional well-being
Stress
128
stress can be caused by
any real or perceived negative physiological, emotional, or cognitive stimulus
129
stress sensory receptros function
* receive information from environment (eyes, ears, mouth, skin)
130
where does the thalamus receive informaiton from?
sensory receptors
131
where does the thalamus send incoming informaiton to?
“low road pathway” directly to amygdala
or
"high road pathway" to sensory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus
132
“low road pathway” directly to amygdala which relays data to
hypothalamus to immediately initiate stress (fear) response “just in case”.
133
benefit of “high road pathway”
analyze & interpret data to modify initial response based on prior learning (memory)
134
what receives sensory data from thalamus & interprets it
Sensory cortex
135
what stores and retrieves conscious memories; processes incoming sets of stimuli to establish context
Hippocampus
136
Amygdala function
* decodes emotions; determines possible threat; stores fear memories
137
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Infra-limbic cortex)
regulates (inhibits) amygdala from escalating hypothalamic “fight or flight” response
138
Hypothalamus activates _____ response
fight or flight
139
Hypothalamus nuclei are
Paraventricular nucleus
Supraoptic nucleus
Dorsomedial nucleus
140
Paraventricular nucleus secrets
1. CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
2. Neuropeptide Y
141
CHR targets
-anterior pituitary – secretes ACTH
142
ACTH makes the adrenal cortex secrete:
mineral corticoids (aldosterone)
glucocorticoids (cortisol)
gonadocorticoids (estrogens & weak androgens)
143
what does aldosterone do?
↑ Na² & H₂O
144
what does cortisol do?
↑ Blood glucose, ↓ immune, etc.
145
Neuropeptide Y function
vasoconstriction, ↑ food intake, fat storage, ↓ pain & anxiety
146
Supraoptic nucleus targets
posterior pituitary
147
Supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus stimulates
ADH-kidneys- ↑ Na⁺ & H₂O
148
Dorsomedial nucleus of hypothalamus Targets ______ through the \_\_\_\_\_\_
Adrenal Medulla, lateral horns of spinal cord
149
Dorsomedial nucleus stimulates production of
catecholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine
150
General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) describes:
body’s reactions to stress
151
General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) postulated by
Hans Selye
152
General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) 3 stages are:
1. Alarm Reaction
2. Stage of Adaptation (resistance)
3. Stage of Exhaustion
153
T/F
General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) is the same essentially the same for any situation
True
154
General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) elevates
cortisol level
epinephrine & norepinephrine
155
GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) is the _____ response and depends on ______ nervous system
* Initial response
* Sympathetic Nervous System- fight/flight
156
explain GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) Endocrine System
Adrenal cortex → Corticoids; Medulla → epinephrine, norepinephrine
157
GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) uses ____ for energy
Glucose
158
GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can ↑ Blood Sugar through:
Glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis
159
GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can ↑ BP through
renin–angiotensin system (RAS): Angiotensin II
160
GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can conserve Na⁺ & H₂O conserve through
ACTH & RAAS: Aldosterone
161
Stage of Adaptation (resistance) due to
* Continued severe stress
* Cortisol domination
162
Stage of Adaptation (resistance) uses
Glycogen stores
163
Stage of Adaptation (resistance) mobilize
**Fats** into glycerol & fatty acids (enter enter blood stream)
164
Stage of Adaptation (resistance) mobilize ____ in the liver, causing ___ blood sugar
* In liver **glycerol** is metabolized (converted to) glucose → **↑ Blood Sugar**
165
what changes the body undergoes through the Stage of Adaptation (resistance)
Adrenal hypertrophy
Lymph organs atrophy
Body fat redistribution- abdominal belly fat
166
Stage of Adaptation (resistance) effect on appetite and BP
* ↑ Appetite (Cortisol)
* ↑ BP (Aldosterone)
167
Explain Body Fat Redistribution
* **glycogen** stores are **depleted** so f**at is broken down** as an alternate energy source-with the depletion of glycogen stores, glucose and therefore **insulin levels decline**
* in response to this low blood sugar level, **lipases** in body’s fat cells are hormonally **activated by glucagon, cortisol, and epinephrine** to breakdown stored fat
* resulting **glycerol and fatty acids are released** by these fat cells into the blood, and **travel to the liver**
* in the liver, **glycerol** is further **broken down to make glucose**
168
Cortisol Effects on Blood sugar, Appetite
* ↑ Blood sugar, ↑ Appetite
169
Cortisol Effects on fat distribution
* Abdominal belly fat
170
Cortisol Effects on BP and BV
* ↑ BP- vasoconstriction (epinephrine & RAS) and blood volume (RAAS)
171
Cortisol Effects on immune system
* ↓ Inflammatory response, ↓ Immune response
172
Cortisol Effects on sex hormones
* ↓ Sex hormone secretion
173
Cortisol Effects on testosterone
* Conversion of available testosterone to DHT (acne, hair loss, infertility)
174
Stress Triad
* GI tract (mouth, stomach, & duodenum) – ulcers
* adrenal glands – enlarged
* lymphatic organs – atrophied
175
3. Stage of Exhaustion happens due to
* prolonged exposure to severe stress
176
3. Stage of Exhaustion uses ____ stores, and uses ____ for eneryg
Fat stors, protein for energy
177
3. Stage of Exhaustion effects on the body
* muscle atrophy
* infection
* adrenal cortex failure
* renal, heart & liver failure
* death
178
PTSD definition
**Stress related mental health condition** that may develop after **exposure to an event or ordeal** (either experiencing or witnessing it) in which death, severe physical harm or violence occurred or was threatened
179
PTSD symptoms
* include intrusive memories or flashbacks
* emotional numbness
* sleep disturbances
* anxiety
* intense guilt
* sadness
* irritability
* outbursts of anger,
* dissociative experiences
180
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the GOAT
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