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5- Endo > Ex2 > Flashcards

Ex2 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe parathyroid glands

A
  • small endocrine glands
  • yellowish-brown flat ovoid space
  • posterior aspect of thyroid
  • 4 usually
  • cells densely packed
  • produce parathyroid hormone
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2
Q

the 2 types of Cells of Parathyroid Gland

A
  1. Chief cells
  2. Oxyphil cells
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3
Q

Function of Chief cells

A

synthesize & secrete PTH

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4
Q

Function of Oxyphil cells

A

unknown

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5
Q

PTH is _____ based hormone

A

Amino acid based hormone

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6
Q

PTH binds to

A

target cell G-protein coupled receptors

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7
Q

second messenger systems of PTH are

A

cAMP & phospholipase

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8
Q

function of PTH

A
  • Antagonist to calcitonin hormone from thyroid
  • Increases blood Ca2+ level
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9
Q

PTH effect on bones

A

stimulates osteoclasts (breakdown bone matrix)

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10
Q

PTH effect on kindey

A

Ca2+ resorption & PO43- excretion

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11
Q

PTH effect on Intestine

A

Ca2+ absorption by mucosal cells

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12
Q

What’s required for absorbtion of calcium derived from ingested food in the intestine

A

Calcitriol, Vitamin D3, the active form of Vitamin D

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13
Q

What makes active Vitamin D

A

Vitamin D (inactive form) from diet (D2, or ergocalciferol) or sun, UVB on skin (7-dehydrocholesterol precursor => D3, or cholecalciferol)

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14
Q

In the liver: vitamin D picks up ____ and become ____

A

picks up extra oxygen and hydrogen molecules to become 25-hydroxyvitamin D

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15
Q

what’s the major circulating metabolite form of vitamin D

A

25-hydroxyvitamin D

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16
Q

what happens to 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the kidney

A

stimulated by PTH, it’s is converted to Calcitriol (active hormonal form) or 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D

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17
Q

how 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D is made?

A

via enzymatic addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH)

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18
Q

what’s the effect of 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D in the intestine

A

Ca2+ absorption by intestinal mucosal cells

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19
Q

Decreased blood Ca²⁺, results in excitability of nervous system, i.e. tetany, muscle twitches, & convulsions. known as:

A

Hypocalcemia

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20
Q

Increase blood Ca²⁺, results in depression of nervous system, kidney stones & soft tissue calcification,

A

Hypercalcemia

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21
Q

↓ PTH: trauma or gland removal; ↓ blood Ca²⁺, i.e. tetany

A

Hypoparathyroidism

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22
Q

↑ PTH: tumor; ↑ blood Ca²⁺, ↓ bone density, i.e. metastatic calcification, osteitis fibrosa cystica.

A

Hyperparathyroidism

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23
Q

Parathyroid hormone negative feedback loop

A
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24
Q

Location of the thymus gland

A

deep to sternum

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25
Q

Which gland undergoes involution

A

Thymus

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26
Q

the site of T-lymphocyte maturation

A

Thymus

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27
Q

what does the thymus gland secrets?

A
  • thymic hormones – thymopoietins, thymic factor, & thymosins
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28
Q

what makes up the cortex of the thymus gland

A

thymocytes (T-lymphocyte precursor cells)

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29
Q

what does the thymus medulla contains

A

thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles and fewer thymocytes

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30
Q

the function of thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles

A

T-cell destruction sites

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31
Q

what kind of immune response is the T-cells involved in

A

cellular (cell-mediated)

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32
Q

How many lobes does the thymus glad have

A

2

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33
Q

describe the thymus lobes (what is it devided into)

A
  • each lobe is divided into multiple lobules
  • each lobule has a cortex (outer part) & medulla (inner part)
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34
Q

what are the Hassal corpuscles

A

whorls of reticular epithelial cells

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35
Q

the function of Hassal corpuscles

A

destroy T-lymphocytes capable of attacking body’s own cells thereby preventing autoimmune disease

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36
Q

where are Hassal corpuscles located

A

in medulla portion of lobules.

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37
Q

what happens in the cortex of the thymus lobule

A

rapidly dividing T-cells (densely packed)

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38
Q

what kind of cells are found in a fewer numbers in the medulla of the thymus lobule than in the cortex

A

T-cells & some thymic (Hassal’s) corpuscles

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39
Q

where does hymocytes originates

A

from bone marrow stem cells

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40
Q

immature T-cells migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus via

A

Blood

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41
Q

type of cells have granules that contain thymus hormones

A

Kulchitsky cells

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42
Q

what type of cells found in the thymus

A

stroma, reticular epitherlia, and thrymocytes

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43
Q

cells that produce thymus hormones

A

reticular epithelial cells

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44
Q

Cells that makes CT of organs

A

stromal cells

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45
Q

hematopoietic derived precursors to T-lymphocytes

A

thymocytes

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46
Q

thymus hormones released by Kulchitsky cells cause

A

T-lymphocytes to become mature & immunocompetent

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47
Q

Thymus Gland Hormones are based on (what type of hormones)

A

amino acid based peptide hormones

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48
Q

thymus gland hormons induce

A

lymphocyte (T-cell) maturation (differentiation) and immunocompetency

  1. Thymopoietins
  2. Thymic Factor
  3. Thymosins
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49
Q

Thymic Hormones Negative Feedback Loop

A
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50
Q

where’s the pancreas located

A
  • Located partially behind stomach
  • Head encircled by duodenum
  • Tail abuts spleen
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51
Q

descibe the shape of hte pancreas

A
  • Tadpole-shaped
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52
Q

does the pancreas have endocrine, exocrine, or both function(s)?

A

Both

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53
Q

what cells that have exocine cells in

A
  • Acinar cells surround ducts
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54
Q

is the pancreatic juice a result of endocrine or exocrine function of the pancreas

A

exocine

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55
Q

what does the pancreatic juice contains

A
  • digestive enzymes
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56
Q

what pancreatic enzyme breaks down carbohydrates

A

pancreatic amylase

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57
Q

what pancreatic enzyme breaks down fat

A

lipase

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58
Q

what pancreatic enzyme breaks down proteins

A

proteases: trypsin & chymotrypsin

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59
Q

what pancreatic enzyme breaks down nucleic acids

A

nucleases

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60
Q

where does the endoctine fuction take place in the pancreas

A
  • Islets of Langerhan cells
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61
Q

type of cells that produce Glucagon in the pancreas

A

Alpha

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62
Q

type of cells that produce Insulin & Amylin

A

Beta cells

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63
Q

cells secrete Somatostatin

A

Delta cells

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64
Q

what kind of hormone is insulin

A
  • amino acid based hormone
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65
Q

describe the chemical strucure of the insulin

A
  • 2 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds
  • derived from “clipping” of proinsulin molecule
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66
Q

Insulin function

A
  1. lowers blood glucose level
  2. stimulates membrane transport of glucose (muscle & fat cells, not brain, liver, or kidney) into target cell
  3. stimulates amino acid uptake into target cell
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67
Q

Insulin Negative Feedback Loop

A
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68
Q

Intracellular Effects of Insulin Stimulates

A
  • formation of glycogen from glucose in liver & muscle
  • protein synthesis from amino acids in muscle
  • fatty acid synthesis in liver
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69
Q

Intracellular Effects of Insulin Inhibits

A
  • glycogenolysis in liver & muscle
  • protein catabolism in muscle
  • lipolysis in adipose tissue
  • gluconeogenesis (aa & fats to glucose) in liver
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70
Q

hormone co-secreted with insulin by beta cells

A

Amylin

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71
Q

that type of hormone is amylin

A
  • peptide hormone
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72
Q

function of amylin

A
  • slows gastric emptying and promotes satiety
  • prevents post-prandial blood glucose spikes
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73
Q

peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells in the pancreas

A

Glucagon

74
Q

Glucagon functions

A
  • raises blood glucose level
  • lowers blood amino acid levels
75
Q

Glucagon’s major target (organ)

A

liver

76
Q

hormone stimulates glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis

A

Glucagon

77
Q

Glucagon Negative Feedback Loop

A
78
Q

Somatostatin is secteted by

A

Delta cells in the pancreas, hypothalamus and the GI tract

79
Q

Somatostatin inhibits

A

release of insulin and glucagon from the pancreas

release of growth hormone anterior pituitary

GI hormones

80
Q

What type of diabetes causes

  • insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
A

Type 1

81
Q

What type of diabetes causes

  • insulin secretion decreased or insulin resistance
A

type 2

82
Q

What type of diabetes

  • may use medications to enhance insulin release or reduce resistance
A

type 2

83
Q

What type of diabetes

  • total absence of insulin activity
  • fats mobilized (lipidemia, or lipemia)
A

type 1

84
Q

What type of diabetes

  • used for alternative fuel source
  • ketoacidosis, from fatty acid metabolism
A

Type 1

85
Q

What type of diabetes causes

  • polyuria, polydipsia, & polyphagia
A

Type 1

86
Q

what type of diabetes

  • non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
A

Type 2

87
Q

what type of diabetes

  • can be managed by exercise, weight loss, & healthy diet
A

Type 2

88
Q

Adrenal Gland AKA

A

suprarenal glands

89
Q

what does the adrenal gland look like, and where is it located?

A

pyramid-shaped, on top of kidneys

90
Q

name the layers of the adrenal cortex (outer portion)

A

Zona glomerulosa

Zona fasciculate

Zona reticularis

91
Q

define Zona glomerulosa

A

outer layer, produces mineralocorticoids, i.e. aldosterone

92
Q

define Zona fasciculate

A

middle layer, produces glucocorticoids, i.e. cortisol

93
Q

define Zona reticularis

A

inner layer; produces gonadocorticoids, i.e. weak androgens, small amounts of estrogens & progestogens

94
Q

where are Mineralcorticoids produced

A
  • Zona glomerulosa
95
Q

what does Mineralcorticoids regulate

A

concentrations of Na⁺ & K⁺

96
Q

_____ most potent Mineralcorticoids

A

Aldosterone

97
Q

what does Mineralcorticoids stimulate

A
  • Stimulates Na⁺ reabsorption & K⁺ secretion
  • Stimulus for secretion: ↓ Na⁺, or ↑ K⁺ in blood and ↓ blood volume & pressure
98
Q

Mineralcorticoids Negative Feedback Loop

A

Remember Na⁺ increases blood pressure and K⁺ lowers it.

99
Q

what regulates Aldosterone secretion

A

ACTH

Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS)

Plasma concentration of K⁺ & Na⁺

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

100
Q

↑ ACTH w/ stress causes

A
  • ↑ aldosterone secretion by zona glomerulosa.
101
Q

explain Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS):

A

↓ BP or BV →

juxtaglomerular apparatus cells of kidney release renin →

converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I → In lung capillaries primarily but not exclusively, ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II (causes vasoconstriction & ↑BP) →

Release of aldosterone (zona glomerulosa- outer layer) cells of adrenal cortex →

Na⁺ reabsorption from kidney tubules into blood. H₂O moves with Na⁺ and therefore increases blood volume & pressure.

102
Q

Plasma concentration ↑ K or ↓ Na causes

A

↑ aldosterone secretion by zona glomerulosa

103
Q

↑ BP causes secretion of ____ by heart

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

104
Q

ANP causes

A

blocks renin & aldosterone secretion and inhibits renin-angiotensin mechanism, therefore ↓ BP.

105
Q

Glucocorticoids are made in

A
  • Zona fasciculate
106
Q

Glucocorticoids regulates

A
  • blood glucose & BP
107
Q

_____ is primary glucocorticoid in humans

A

cortisol

108
Q

glucocorticoids function

A
  • provokes gluconeogenesis during severe stress
  • enhances epinephrine vasoconstrictive effects
109
Q

Glucocorticoids Negative Feedback Loop

A
  1. ) Adrenal cortex pathway; Hypothalamus produces CRH to stimulate the release of ACTH from Anterior Pituitary (corticotropes) → Adrenal cortex, and
  2. ) Adrenal medulla pathway (“Fight or Flight”)- Hypothalamus stimulation of Ventrolateral medulla (reticular formation) of Brain Stem → Sympathetic preganglionic neurons in lateral horns of spinal cord [T5-9 outflow (greater splanchnic nerve pathway, and T10,11 outflow (lesser splanchnic nerve pathway)] → Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells.
110
Q

Gonadocorticoid are produced in

A
  • Zona reticularis
111
Q

Examples of Gonadocorticoids

A

weak androgens & small amounts of estrogens & progestogens

112
Q

Gonadocorticoid function

A
  • provide estrogens after menopause
113
Q

Gonadocorticoids Negative Feedback Loop

A
114
Q

what’s inner part of adrenal gland?

A

Adrenal Medulla

115
Q

Adrenal Medulla is consist of

A

modified postganglionic neurons

116
Q

modified postganglionic neurons AKA

A

chromaffin cells

117
Q

chromaffin cells surround

A

capillaries & sinusoids

118
Q

chromaffin cells get their innervation (stimulation) from

A

preganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers lead to them directly from CNS (lateral horns of spinal cord)

119
Q

chromaffin cells secretes

A

epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), & small amounts of dopamine

120
Q

adrenal medulla produces unequal amount of neurotransmitter: Epinephrine (____%) & Norepinephrine (____%)

A

Epinephrine (80%) & Norepinephrine (20%)

121
Q

general types of epinephrine receptors

A

alpha adrenergic: causes vasoconstriction

beta adrenergic: causes vasodilation

122
Q

Epinephrine function

A
  • stimulate metabolic activities
  • bronchodilation
  • increased heart rate
  • increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, heart & lungs
123
Q

Norepinephrine function

A

peripheral vasoconstriction

Increase blood pressure

124
Q

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine Negative Feedback Loop

A
  1. ) Adrenal cortex pathway; Hypothalamus produces CRH to stimulate the release of ACTH from Anterior Pituitary (corticotropes) → Adrenal cortex, and
  2. ) Adrenal medulla pathway (“Fight or Flight”)- Hypothalamus stimulation of Ventrolateral medulla (reticular formation) of Brain Stem → Sympathetic preganglionic neurons in lateral horns of spinal cord [T5-9 outflow (greater splanchnic nerve pathway, and T10,11 outflow (lesser splanchnic nerve pathway)] → Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells.
125
Q

disorder described as ↓ glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids. ↓ blood glucose & Na⁺. Hypotension, weight loss, & bronze pigmentation

A

Addison’s

126
Q

Disorder described as ↑ glucocorticoids & mineralcorticoids; steroid diabetes (↑ blood glucose), edema & hypertension. Moon face (swelling), and buffalo hump (fat redistribution)

A

Cushings

127
Q

any situation that upsets homeostasis & threatens one’s physical & emotional well-being

A

Stress

128
Q

stress can be caused by

A

any real or perceived negative physiological, emotional, or cognitive stimulus

129
Q

stress sensory receptros function

A
  • receive information from environment (eyes, ears, mouth, skin)
130
Q

where does the thalamus receive informaiton from?

A

sensory receptors

131
Q

where does the thalamus send incoming informaiton to?

A

“low road pathway” directly to amygdala

or

“high road pathway” to sensory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus

132
Q

“low road pathway” directly to amygdala which relays data to

A

hypothalamus to immediately initiate stress (fear) response “just in case”.

133
Q

benefit of “high road pathway”

A

analyze & interpret data to modify initial response based on prior learning (memory)

134
Q

what receives sensory data from thalamus & interprets it

A

Sensory cortex

135
Q

what stores and retrieves conscious memories; processes incoming sets of stimuli to establish context

A

Hippocampus

136
Q

Amygdala function

A
  • decodes emotions; determines possible threat; stores fear memories
137
Q

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Infra-limbic cortex)

A

regulates (inhibits) amygdala from escalating hypothalamic “fight or flight” response

138
Q

Hypothalamus activates _____ response

A

fight or flight

139
Q

Hypothalamus nuclei are

A

Paraventricular nucleus

Supraoptic nucleus

Dorsomedial nucleus

140
Q

Paraventricular nucleus secrets

A
  1. CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
  2. Neuropeptide Y
141
Q

CHR targets

A

-anterior pituitary – secretes ACTH

142
Q

ACTH makes the adrenal cortex secrete:

A

mineral corticoids (aldosterone)

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

gonadocorticoids (estrogens & weak androgens)

143
Q

what does aldosterone do?

A

↑ Na² & H₂O

144
Q

what does cortisol do?

A

↑ Blood glucose, ↓ immune, etc.

145
Q

Neuropeptide Y function

A

vasoconstriction, ↑ food intake, fat storage, ↓ pain & anxiety

146
Q

Supraoptic nucleus targets

A

posterior pituitary

147
Q

Supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus stimulates

A

ADH-kidneys- ↑ Na⁺ & H₂O

148
Q

Dorsomedial nucleus of hypothalamus Targets ______ through the ______

A

Adrenal Medulla, lateral horns of spinal cord

149
Q

Dorsomedial nucleus stimulates production of

A

catecholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine

150
Q

General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) describes:

A

body’s reactions to stress

151
Q

General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) postulated by

A

Hans Selye

152
Q

General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) 3 stages are:

A
  1. Alarm Reaction
  2. Stage of Adaptation (resistance)
  3. Stage of Exhaustion
153
Q

T/F

General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) is the same essentially the same for any situation

A

True

154
Q

General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS) elevates

A

cortisol level

epinephrine & norepinephrine

155
Q

GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) is the _____ response and depends on ______ nervous system

A
  • Initial response
  • Sympathetic Nervous System- fight/flight
156
Q

explain GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) Endocrine System

A

Adrenal cortex → Corticoids; Medulla → epinephrine, norepinephrine

157
Q

GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) uses ____ for energy

A

Glucose

158
Q

GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can ↑ Blood Sugar through:

A

Glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis

159
Q

GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can ↑ BP through

A

renin–angiotensin system (RAS): Angiotensin II

160
Q

GAS stage 1 (Alarm Reaction) can conserve Na⁺ & H₂O conserve through

A

ACTH & RAAS: Aldosterone

161
Q

Stage of Adaptation (resistance) due to

A
  • Continued severe stress
  • Cortisol domination
162
Q

Stage of Adaptation (resistance) uses

A

Glycogen stores

163
Q

Stage of Adaptation (resistance) mobilize

A

Fats into glycerol & fatty acids (enter enter blood stream)

164
Q

Stage of Adaptation (resistance) mobilize ____ in the liver, causing ___ blood sugar

A
  • In liver glycerol is metabolized (converted to) glucose → ↑ Blood Sugar
165
Q

what changes the body undergoes through the Stage of Adaptation (resistance)

A

Adrenal hypertrophy

Lymph organs atrophy

Body fat redistribution- abdominal belly fat

166
Q

Stage of Adaptation (resistance) effect on appetite and BP

A
  • ↑ Appetite (Cortisol)
  • ↑ BP (Aldosterone)
167
Q

Explain Body Fat Redistribution

A
  • glycogen stores are depleted so fat is broken down as an alternate energy source-with the depletion of glycogen stores, glucose and therefore insulin levels decline
  • in response to this low blood sugar level, lipases in body’s fat cells are hormonally activated by glucagon, cortisol, and epinephrine to breakdown stored fat
  • resulting glycerol and fatty acids are released by these fat cells into the blood, and travel to the liver
  • in the liver, glycerol is further broken down to make glucose
168
Q

Cortisol Effects on Blood sugar, Appetite

A
  • ↑ Blood sugar, ↑ Appetite
169
Q

Cortisol Effects on fat distribution

A
  • Abdominal belly fat
170
Q

Cortisol Effects on BP and BV

A
  • ↑ BP- vasoconstriction (epinephrine & RAS) and blood volume (RAAS)
171
Q

Cortisol Effects on immune system

A
  • ↓ Inflammatory response, ↓ Immune response
172
Q

Cortisol Effects on sex hormones

A
  • ↓ Sex hormone secretion
173
Q

Cortisol Effects on testosterone

A
  • Conversion of available testosterone to DHT (acne, hair loss, infertility)
174
Q

Stress Triad

A
  • GI tract (mouth, stomach, & duodenum) – ulcers
  • adrenal glands – enlarged
  • lymphatic organs – atrophied
175
Q
  1. Stage of Exhaustion happens due to
A
  • prolonged exposure to severe stress
176
Q
  1. Stage of Exhaustion uses ____ stores, and uses ____ for eneryg
A

Fat stors, protein for energy

177
Q
  1. Stage of Exhaustion effects on the body
A
  • muscle atrophy
  • infection
  • adrenal cortex failure
  • renal, heart & liver failure
  • death
178
Q

PTSD definition

A

Stress related mental health condition that may develop after exposure to an event or ordeal (either experiencing or witnessing it) in which death, severe physical harm or violence occurred or was threatened

179
Q

PTSD symptoms

A
  • include intrusive memories or flashbacks
  • emotional numbness
  • sleep disturbances
  • anxiety
  • intense guilt
  • sadness
  • irritability
  • outbursts of anger,
  • dissociative experiences
180
Q

______ is the GOAT

A

Lisjak

5- Endo (2 decks)

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