evpp 302 final

Question 1

describe the different types of wetlands

Answer 1

Marshes: frequently inundated with water; soft-stemmed vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions. Receive most of their water from surface water and groundwater. Nutrients are plentiful and pH is generally neutral. Recharge groundwater supply and moderate stream flow by providing water to streams. Helps reduce flood damage by slowing/storing flood water.
Swamps: dominated by woody plants; saturated soils during growing season and standing water during certain times of the year. Vital role in flood protection and nutrient removal. High in productivity and species diversity because of rich deposits of alluvial soil from floods.
Bogs: spongy peat deposits; acidic waters, and sphagnum moss. Receive all water from precipitation. Low in nutrients for plant growth. Prevent downstream flooding by absorbing precipitation.
Fens: Peat forming wetlands that receive nutrients from sources other than precipitation. Up slope sources through drainage from surrounding mineral soils and groundwater movement. Low temperatures and short growing seasons; ample precipitation and high humidity cause excessive moisture.

Question 2

What are the characteristics of estuaries? What are the salinity gradients in an estuary?

Answer 2

Estuaries: often shallow, light reaches most of their volume, large nutrient inputs received from the watershed.
Salinity: increases as you move down the river mouth to the ocean. Salinity increases with depth because salt water is heavier than freshwater. Tidal freshwater: 0.5 ppt salinity, Oligohaline: 0.5-6 ppt salinity, Mesohaline: 6-14 ppt salinity, Polyhaline: 14-35 ppt salinity.

Question 3

Explain the stages in the life cycle, decline and recovery efforts of the blue crab, Eastern oyster, striped bass and American shad.

Answer 3

Blue Crabs: spawn in the ocean just outside of the Bay. Larvae and young move into the estuary/tidal rivers where they spend most of their life cycle.
Eastern Oyster: Spawn age is 1-3 yrs. Must eat naturally occurring phytoplankton in the water column and invest energy into creating either eggs or sperm. Larvae is planktonic and spend the first few weeks drifting in current. When size reaches the head of a pin, it settles to the bottom. “Spat” attaches to a hard surface and grows larger, extending the size of its shell. Decline due to overharvesting, algal blooms and toxic chemicals, siltation from land, and parasites.
Striped Bass: Spawns in tidal freshwater in spring. Eggs are fertilized and hatch in open water. Small larvae are moved by currents. Young move into the estuary and open ocean. Return to spawn by age 3-4.
American Shad: 5 yr life span at sea, enters freshwater in the spring to spawn. Occurs in tidal and nontidal waters. Eggs and sperm are broadcast into the water. No nest, no parental care. Eggs sink to the bottom where the embryo develops. Hatching occurs in 5-6 days. Young larvae feed on yolk sac and gradually, small plankton. Decline due to blockage of spawning rivers by dams/pollution. The Susquehanna basin is completely blocked by Conowingo dam. Recovery - removing dams, fish ladders to facilitate fish passage, improving water quality, restoring stocks from hatcheries.

Question 4

Discuss how various organisms are impacted by climate change, how phenological mismatches may occur and what the consequences are for these mismatches. Use examples from the lecture.

Answer 4

Phenological mismatch results when interacting species change the timing of regularly repeated phases in their life cycles at different rates. Great Tit - egg laying time is later than caterpillar availability, Rely on spring peak in caterpillar numbers to feed their young. Bog Copper - eggs laid on underside of cranberry leaf and larvae eat cranberry leaves, flower is nectar for adults. Flowering occurs 2 days earlier for each degree increase in may temperature.
Arctic warming for the past 40 years has allowed the red fox populations to expand north, leading to a decline in Arctic fox populations. Prey overlap, red fox is physically dominant, and can readily adapt to new environments due to high plasticity.

Question 5

Where is atmospheric CO2 data collected? What are past and current trends in atmospheric CO2?

Answer 5

Data collected at the Mauna Loa Lab in Hawaii. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Annually, CO2 is low starting September. Steady increase from October to May. Peak CO2 levels in May. Decline from May to August. Steady increase over the decades. Around 320 ppm in 1960, now around 421 ppm in 2020.

Question 6

Using plant, animal and zooplankton examples, describe how climate change over time has impacted species distribution, and how researchers know this.

Answer 6

Increases in regional sea surface temperatures have led to reorganization of zooplankton species composition and biodiversity in the North Atlantic Basin. Warmer water species have undergone a northerly shift during the past 40 years and colder water species have contracted their range. This is measured using Continuous Plankton Recorders. Show consistent, long term changes.

Question 7

Explain how Biodiversity, ecosystems, ecosystem services, and human well-being are interconnected and how biodiversity underpins ecosystems.

Answer 7

Biodiversity can serve as an ecosystem service itself and biodiversity constitutes an ecosystem good that is directly valued by humans. Significant environmental change, such as climate change, poses risks to species, ecosystems, and the services that humans rely on. Consequently, identifying measures to minimize, cope with, or respond to the negative impacts of climate change is necessary to reduce biodiversity loss and to sustain ecosystem services.

Question 8

Describe how the spatial patterns and scale of the landscape elements. Be able to discuss the vocabulary mentioned.

Answer 8

Patch: Relatively small area distinct from surroundings
Larger patches tend to have more diversity and individuals
Corridor/Buffer: Linear patch w/ special functions from shape, narrow bands more easily disturbed, help prevent fragmentation
Matrix: larger collection of patches and buffers
Boundaries: zones between edges or matrices, can be abrupt or gradual
Ecotone: board, gradual, transition boundaries often caused by changing land attributes ex. Treeline
Narrow boundaries attract predators, especially mammals
Biosphere > Biome > Ecosystem > Community > Population > Individual

Question 9

Describe how specific pest species impact landscapes, define characteristics of invasive species and discuss how climate change plays a role in pest behavior.

Answer 9

• Pest Species
  Spotted lanternfly: SLF threatens: Fruit crops, like grapes, peaches, and hops. Pine, oak, walnut, and maple trees. Preferred host is invasive tree-of-heaven
  Tree of Heaven: crowds out native species, produces a chemical that is toxic to surround species. Inhibits forest regeneration
• Invasive species
  Quick reproduction
  No natural predators
  Generalists
  Able to outcompete native species
• Pests and Climate change
  Warmer temperatures encourage pest reproduction and metabolism as they are ectothermic (typically). This can also lead to regional expansion.

Question 10

Explain why researchers quantify community diversity, and what ecological methods are employed.

Answer 10

Researchers quantify community diversity in ecology to understand the structure and dynamics of ecological communities. Community diversity provides insights into the variety and abundance of species within a given area, as well as the interactions between them.

Question 11

Compare and contrast biomes and ecoregions.

Answer 11

An ecoregion is a defined area that covers a large area of land or water and has a distinct group of species and natural communities. A biome is a geographical unit that is based upon the physical environment and regional climate that a community thrives in. Biomes cover much more land compared to ecoregions, which are of a much finer scale. Biomes can span countries and continents while ecoregions will see multiple in a single country.

Question 12

Define the various types of solid waste and the types of landfills which accept this waste in the US.

Answer 12

Municipal solid waste landfills: dispose of household waste
Industrial waste landfills: collect commercial and institutional waste
Hazardous waste landfills: collect hazardous waste, materials that may be dangerous or destructive

Question 13

Explain current trends in solid waste management and recycling. (Hint see EPA page for most current data)

Answer 13

The total generation of municipal solid waste in 2018 was 292.4 million tons or 4.9 pounds per person per day. Of the MSW generated, approximately 69 million tons were recycled and 25 million tons were composted. Together, almost 94 million tons of MSW were recycled and composted, equivalent to a 32.1 percent recycling and composting rate. An additional 17.7 million tons of food were managed by other methods.

Question 14

Explain how methane gas is formed, where it is emitted and the environmental impacts it creates.

Answer 14

Methane is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas. Methane is also a greenhouse gas.
Methane is emitted from a variety of anthropogenic and natural sources. Anthropogenic emission sources include landfills, oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes. China, US, Russia - 3 biggest methane emitters
Methane has more than 80 times the warming power of carbon dioxide over the first 20 years after it reaches the atmosphere.

Question 15

Define energy terminology.

Answer 15

Primary energy sources include fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, and coal), nuclear energy, and renewable sources of energy.
Electricity is a secondary energy source that is generated (produced) from primary energy sources.
Renewable energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale (water, solar).
Non-renewable energy is one that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames (coal fossil fuels)
Btu -One British thermal unit (Btu) is approximately equal to the energy released by burning a match.measure of the heat content of fuels or energy sources. It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid water by 1 degree Fahrenheit at the temperature that water has its greatest density

Question 15

Compare and contrast the missions of federal and state environmental agencies.

Answer 15

The EPA sets the national standards for environmental protection. Because every state has a different set of natural and economic parameters, states typically adopt a law at least as stringent as the federal one. The state law takes precedence over the federal one as long as the state can assume primary responsibility for implementing and enforcing the law.
The federal government, however, continues to have ultimate enforcement authority in all cases. The Agency has oversight responsibility over the states’ activities, and monitors state and tribal implementation of EPA approved programs.

Question 16

Explain how energy is delivered to end users

Answer 16

Electricity is generated at power plants and moves through a complex system, sometimes called the grid, of electricity substations, transformers, and power lines that connect electricity producers and consumers.

Question 17

Develop a general understanding of the US energy grid, including energy source locations.

Answer 17

The stability of the electricity grid requires the electricity supply to constantly meet electricity demand, which in turn requires coordination of numerous entities that operate different components of the grid.
At the highest level, the U.S. power system in the Lower 48 states is made up of three main interconnections, which operate largely independently from each other with limited transfers of electricity between them.
The Eastern Interconnection encompasses the area east of the Rocky Mountains and a portion of the Texas panhandle.
The Western Interconnection encompasses the area from the Rockies to the west.
The Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) covers most of Texas.
The regional operation of the electric system is managed by entities called balancing authorities, which ensure that electricity supply constantly matches power demand.
Electric reliability organizations set standards for grid operations
The power grid is old. Some of the older, existing transmission and distribution lines have reached the end of their useful lives and must be replaced or upgraded. New power lines are also needed to maintain the electrical system’s overall reliability and to provide links to new renewable energy generation resources, such as wind and solar power, which are often located far from where electricity demand is concentrated.

Question 18

Contrast efficiency, prevalence and locations of renewable vs non-renewable energy sources and energy use sectors in US.

Answer 18

Renewable Energy Sources:
Efficiency: Generally exhibit higher efficiency compared to non-renewable sources.
Advances in technology have led to increased efficiency in harnessing energy from renewables.
Variable efficiency based on factors like weather conditions (e.g., solar and wind).
Prevalence: Growing prevalence in the energy mix.
Major sources include solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass.
Increasing investments and government incentives contribute to their prevalence.
Locations: Distributed geographically, with solar and wind potential in various regions.
Hydroelectric power concentrated in regions with suitable water resources.
Biomass and geothermal potential in areas with appropriate biomass or geothermal activity.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources:
Efficiency: Generally have lower efficiency compared to some renewable sources.
Technological advancements aim to improve efficiency but face inherent limitations.
Prevalence: Historically dominant in the energy sector.
Challenges include environmental concerns, resource depletion, and geopolitical issues.
Locations: Fossil fuel extraction often concentrated in specific geological formations.
Nuclear power plants located strategically, considering safety and infrastructure.
Renewable Energy in Sectors:
Increasing integration in electricity generation, especially in the residential and commercial sectors.
Transportation sector slowly adopting renewable sources (e.g., electric vehicles).
Biomass and geothermal applications in industrial processes.
Non-Renewable Energy in Sectors:
Dominant in electricity generation, particularly from coal, natural gas, and nuclear power.
Extensive use in the transportation sector (petroleum-based fuels).
Industrial processes heavily reliant on non-renewable sources for heat and power.

Question 19

Explain the products produced when crude oil is refined

Answer 19

Refineries can produce high-value products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel from light crude oil with simple distillation
Heavy crude oils require additional, more expensive processing to produce high-value products. Some crude oils also have a high sulfur content, which is an undesirable characteristic in both processing and product quality.
n addition to crude oil, refineries and blending facilities add other oils and liquids during processing to produce the finished products that are sold to consumers.

Question 20

Describe how soil is formed and how soil microbiota impacts plant life and what the microbes receive from the plants.

Answer 20

Soil is formed by the breakdown of rock into smaller pieces by erosion and the growth of plant roots.
Mycorrhizal fungi transport nutrients, ions, and organic material between soil particles to the plant roots. Bacteria in the rhizosphere break down organic molecules and turn nutrients into usable forms.
Fungi and bacteria associated with plants receive sugars from the plant in return for their compounds and hyphae networks.

Question 21

Describe the science and economics supporting traditional agriculture compared to regenerative agriculture practices.

Answer 21

It may be harder for small-scale farms to integrate Regen Ag into their practices due to time constraints that may be a barrier as the movement expands. Initially the yields are low and it isn’t cost effective in the beginning.

Question 22

Be able to articulate the costs and benefits of switching to a regenerative agriculture system, compared to traditional agriculture.

Answer 22

Costs:
Low first yields
Requires new knowledge, techniques, equipment
Benefits:
Less need for fertilizer
And thus less eutrophication
More resilient and consistent harvest
Soil lasts longer

Question 23

Describe internal and external plant defense structures and how these plant defenses relate to pollinator life cycles.

Answer 23

External:
Thorns
Trichomes: surface hairs that release strong aromas and have bitter taste, can also insulate ex. Marijuana, Stinging Nettles
Lignin: Makes bark rigid and hard to chew, certain animals still chew through such as the Emerald Ash Borer
Cuticle: Outer layer of leaf, can thicken during attack
Raphides: sharp calcium oxalate crystals that tear soft tissues upon consumption, possible contributor to kidney stones
Internal
Volatile Organic Compounds: chemicals released by plants when cut/eaten, activate plant defenses and neighboring plants, attract predators ex. Parasitoid wasps
Pollinators
Certain plant defenses don’t affect their preferred pollinators, allowing specialization
Solitary bees > wild bee colonies > honeybees
Short tongued species pierce outside of flower to ‘rob’ nectar
80% of plants use pollinators
Corn doesn’t
Flower parts:
Stamen: male
Pistil: female
Nectaries: hold nectar, attracting pollinators
Carpenter bee: solitary flower generalists which drill tunnels in wood to fill with eggs
Global insect decline due to (in order):
Habitat loss
Pesticides and fertilizers
Invasives and pathogens
Climate change

Question 24

Define who are the primary pollinators of human consumed crops and what is their global status (a general understanding-you do not the specific numbers).

Answer 24

Primary pollinators are largely domesticated bees and solitary ones, in addition to many wasp and butterfly species. Domesticated bees tend to be more common due to being easier to cultivate and their production of honey. They are dying, due to climate change, pesticide poisoning, and plant loss

Question 25

Discuss the environmental consequences to using commercially grown honeybees and bumblebees to increase pollination of various fruits and vegetable crops?

Answer 25

Honeybees and bumblebees are often less effective pollinators overall compared to solitary bees (but easier to cultivate). May displace native pollinators.

Question 26

Explain how agencies and individuals are positively impacting pollinator habitat.

Answer 26

Bee boxes are made to be habitat for solitary bees.
USDA handles honey bees because they are agriculture.

Question 27

Describe the life histories of various terrestrial and aquatic keystone species and their impacts on ecosystems when present and absent.

Answer 27

Sea Stars - primarily eat mussels. On tidal outcrops lacking the predatory sea star, mussels soon crowded out many of the 15 original species, biodiversity was halved in one year
Sea otters - top predator. Without otters urchins grow out of control and diminish kelp population
Alligators
Foxes
Black-bellied salamander

Question 28

Analyze and reflect on the organization of ecological communities.

Answer 28

Species differentiation and abundance
Ecological communities are characterized by the spatial arrangement of species across landscapes. Species distributions are influenced by factors such as climate, topography, and habitat suitability. Abundance refers to the number of individuals of each species within a community.
Niches
Niche differentiation helps minimize competition among species by allowing them to exploit different resources or occupy distinct spatial and temporal niches. This promotes coexistence and diversity within the community.
Keystone Species
Some species play disproportionately important roles in maintaining the structure and function of ecological communities.
Trophic Structure
The trophic structure of a community describes the feeding relationships among its members
Biogeographical patterns
describe the distribution of species across large geographic areas. Factors such as historical events, climate, and geographic barriers contribute to these patterns.

Question 29

Examine the structure, function and ‘shape’ of various landscapes and predict how nutrients will flow, where various birds and mammals are more likely to reside and feed, and how discrete events impact landscapes; compare structural versus functional connectivity.

Answer 29

Beach landscapes are defined by the height that water reaches during tides and distance from the water. Mammals and birds tend towards the higher tide areas. Can be heavily affected by flooding or droughts (in river beaches), pollution. Nutrients are moved by the tidal water movement and downslope towards the body of water.