Evolutionary explanations of human aggression

Question 1

What are evolutionary explanations of aggression?

Answer 1

• An account of the changes in species over millions of years based on the idea of natural selection - any behaviour that enhances survival and ultimately successful reproduction is perpetuated

Question 2

What are the evolutionary explanations of sexual jealousy?

Answer 2

• Sexual jealousy is a major motivation of aggressive behaviour in males which can be given an evolutionary explanation
• Jealousy occurs because men, unlike women can never be totally sure whether or not they are the childs parent
• This paternity uncertainty is a result of a very real threat of cuckoldry (having to raise offspring that it is not their own)
• Any investment into offspring that does not share the males genes is a waste of resources. It contributes to survival of a rivals’s genes and leaves the father with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring
• Men in evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful
• This causes psychological mechanisms to avoid this such as sexual jealousy . This drives aggressive strategies in men to retain their partners and prevent them from straying

Question 3

What are male retention strategies?

Answer 3

• Wilson and Daly (1996) identified the sexual male retention strategies:
  1. Direct guarding = this involves male vigilance over a partners behaviour to see who they’ve been seeing, coming home early and keeping tabs on whereabouts
  2. Negative inducements = Such as issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity ( I’ll kill myself if you leave me)

Question 4

How is physical violence against partners explained?

Answer 4

• Margo Wilson asked women to report male retention strategies in their partners. This was measured in terms of the extent to whether they agreed with statements such as - “He insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times”
• Women who did agree with such statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence at the hands of their partners. Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives. This supports that mate retention strategies are linked to physical violence

Question 5

What are the evolutionary.explanation of bullying?

Answer 5

• Bullying occurs because of a power imbalance where a more powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly a weaker person
• Researchers have traditionally viewed bullying as a maladaptive behaviour, and as a result of poor social skills or childhood abuse.
• However our evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase their chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction

Question 6

What is the reason for male bullying?

Answer 6

• Tony Volk argue that the characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to females such as dominance , acquisition of resources and strength
• Bullying also has the benefit of warding off potential rivals so they can be selected for reproduction and have reproductive success
• Bullying can also benefit the bullies health. Adolescent boys who gain a reputation for being touch are less likely to experience aggression themselves as other boys avoid contact with them. Their benefits their health as those at the top a dominance hierarchy experience less stress

Question 7

Why does female bullying occur?

Answer 7

• Female bullying more often takes place in a relationship and is a method of controlling a partner
• women use bullying behaviour to secure their partners fidelity which means they continue to provide resources for future offspring. Again such behaviour would be naturally selected for enhanced reproductive success

Question 8

What is one strength of evolutionary explanations?

Answer 8

• Gender differences
• One strength is that evolutionary theory can explain why males and females differ in their uses of aggression
• Lots of research shows that there are gender differences in aggression. Such differences could be due to socialisation but some can be explained in terms of adaptive strategies
• For example, Anne Campbell (1999) argues that it Is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive as such behaviour could put her survival and the survival of their offspring at risk. So a more adaptive strategy is for females to use verbal aggression to retain a partner who provides resources. This is why women tend to display verbal aggression rather than physical aggression.
• Therefore such arguments can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explain aggression

Question 9

What is a limitation of evolutionary explanations of aggression?

Answer 9

• One limitation is that there are substantial cultural differences in aggressive behaviour
• There are some cultures where aggression appears to be non - existent such as the !kung - san people of western Botswana who were studied by Elizabeth Thomas, naming them the harmless people.
• She found that they have very negative attitudes towards the use of aggression. Aggressive behaviour is discouraged from childhood in both boys and girls and is therefore rare. Those who are aggressive have their status and reputation dimished.
• Cultural and social norms powerfully constrain aggressive behaviour, showing that in some cultures that since aggression is not used, it may not be adaptive

Question 10

What is a counterpoint to the investigations into cultural differences?

Answer 10

• The people of !kung may not be as harmless as they seem
• For example, Richard Lee described the homicide rate as surprisingly high for peaceful people. This contradicts their non aggressive cultures
• This may be due to observer bias
• This shows that the limitation may not be useful as it lacks validity and that aggression does exist within the !kung people

Question 11

What is a strength of evolutionary explanations?

Answer 11

• Another strength is that evolutionary explanations can be used to reduce bullying.
• One approach to bullying is to address the bully’s percieved deficiencies ( if they feel inferior) and this can be done using Bruce Ellis (2016) adaptive strategies.
• This strategy gave meaningful roles in an anti - bullying intervention to increase the costs of bullying and rewards of prosocial alternatives ( giving bullies roles and responsibilities in school to provide an alternative source of status)
• Therefore, viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti - bullying interventions