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WACE HB > Evolution > Flashcards

Evolution Flashcards

1
Q

Hominids?

A

Family: Hominidae
- Humans, Chimpanzees, Gorillas and Orang-utans (Great Apes)

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2
Q

What are hominines?

A

Subfamily: Homininae
- Humans, Chimpanzees and Gorillas.

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3
Q

What are the two classifications of humans?

A

Hominids and hominins

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4
Q

What are hominins?

A

The group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and all our immediate ancestors (including members of the genera Homo, Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Ardipithecus).
Tribe: Hominini
- Humans and their extinct ancestors

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5
Q

What are hominids?

A

The group consisting of all modern and extinct Great Apes (that is, modern humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orang-utans plus all their immediate ancestors).

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6
Q

In 7 ways how do Hominids differ from other primates?

A
  • Large, more complex brains
  • 5-cusps molars on lower jaw
  • Freely rotating arms
  • Wide, shallow chest cavity
  • No external tail
  • An appendix
  • Diurnal – active during the day.
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7
Q

in 4 ways How do Hominins differ from apes in appearance, structure and behaviour?

A
  • relatively hairless
  • Fully bipedal (walk on two legs)
  • Erect posture & striding gait
  • Great brain development & speech.
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8
Q

Who are the human ancestors?

A
  • Apes and humans have common ancestor – ape-like creature – from which first hominins evolved, the australopithecines. (Genus: Australopithecus)
  • Genus Homo developed from one or more of the australopithecine species.
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9
Q

What is the avergae brain difference ffor humans and apes?

A

Average human brain = 1350cm3, Apes = 400-500cm3
Size difference associated with cerebrum.

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10
Q

Cerebral cortex in humans compared to apes

A
  • Cerebral cortex (outer portion) shows greatest development
  • Convolutions give 50% greater surface area
  • Frontal lobe in human brain contributes 47% of cortical surface area (apes 33%) – where higher functions occur (thinking, reasoning, planning, processing, etc.)
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11
Q

How is the evolutionary trend of brain in hominins determined?

A
  • early hominins brains similar to apes
  • Studied by cranial capacity (volume inside cranium) and endocasts (impressions of brain surface inside skull).
  • Fossil endocasts show gradual increase in number of convolutions and size of frontal lobe.
  • As brain size increased, face became flatter & noticeable forehead developed – likely due to expanding frontal lobe.
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12
Q

4 Evolutionary trend of early hominins through to modern humans: dentition

A
  • Human dentition very distinctive from other primates.
  • Canines don’t project beyond other teeth or interlock, looking more like incisors and taking up less room.
  • Dental arcade (shape of tooth row) evolved to different shape – more parabolic than U-shaped.
  • smaller molars and decrease in strength, gradual loss of wisdom teeth.
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13
Q

5 Characteristics of the mandible and teeth more ape like (primitive)

A
  • More prognathic jaw
  • Heavier/thicker mandible
  • No chin
  • Larger teeth (especially molars) - Diastema present
  • Canine teeth more prominent
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14
Q

2 Characteristics of the torso more ape like (primitive)

A
  • Narrower hips (pelvis)
  • Back (lumbar) vertebrae less wedge-shaped
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15
Q

2 Characteristics of the torso more human like (modern)

A
  • Broader hips
  • Lumbar vertebrae more wedge-shaped
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16
Q

2 Characteristics of the upper limbs more ape like (primitive)

A

Shorter thumb
Fingers more curved

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17
Q

2 Characteristics of the upper limbs more human like (modern)

A

Longer thumb
Fingers straighter

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18
Q

2 characteristics of the lower limbs more ape like (primitive)

A

Femurs more parallel
Arms longer than legs

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19
Q

2 characteristics of the lower limbs more human like (modern)

A

Femurs sloping inwards towards the knee
Arms shorter than legs

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20
Q

5 Effect of environment on hominin evolution

A
  • After split from chimpanzees, hominins thought to live in woodland/forest environments.
  • Believed that bipedalism originated in arboreal ape-like hominin – arm and hand features suited to living in trees (much like orangutans often move bipedally across branches using arms for balance).
  • 5-6 million year ago – environment changed.
  • Temperature decreased, forest are decreased leaving increasing open grassland/space
  • Natural selection favoured more erect stance to move bipedally across landscape.
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21
Q

4 Fossil evidence of Australopithecus genus

A

In Laetoli - 23m trail of Australopithecine afarensis footprints in volcanic ash made 3.56 million years ago – Footprints indicate bipedal locomotion.
HADAR- 40% complete female skeleton – ‘Lucy’.
- lived 3-3.6 million years ago.
-. Now classified as Australopithecus afarensis.
Taung – Raymond Dart, 1920s
- First Australopithecine fossil found - whole face, jaws and teeth
- Named Australopithecine africanus – ‘southern ape of Africa’
Sterkfontein & Kromdraai – Robert Broom, 1930s
- Second Australopithecine fossil found in Sterkfontein
Kromdraai fossil found later appeared different – named Paranthropus robustus – ‘beside human’

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22
Q

3 Leg features of Australopithecus

A
  • Femur and pelvis more similar to human than ape – combined with fossil footprint evidence, safe to assume true bipedalism.
  • Non-opposable big toe.
  • Femur angled so foot was under centre of gravity, allowing bipedal locomotion with striding gait.
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23
Q

2 Hand features of Australopithecus

A
  • shorter, less mobile thumb than humans, more heavily built fingers/hands
    – suggest adapted for power over precision or arboreal lifestyle.
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24
Q

3 teeth/jaw features of Australopithecus

A
  • Short non-projecting canines (look like incisors) – making row of cutting teeth.
  • No gap between them and premolars.
  • Parabolic shape of teeth.
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25
Q

2 Face features of Australopithecus

A

low forehead and more projecting lower jaw than modern hominins.

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26
Q

3 Brain/skull features of Australopithecus

A
  • 480cm3.
  • Endocasts show brain surface more like humans than apes.
  • Foramen magnum more forward than apes and skull rounded at back.
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27
Q

When were australopithecus afarensis alive?

A

Between 3.9 and 2.8 mya

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28
Q

Where did australopithecus afarensis live?

A

East africa

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29
Q

What was the height of males and females of australopithecus afarensis?

A
  • Female: 105-110cm
  • Male: 150cm
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30
Q

What was the brain size of australopithecus afarensis?

A

430cm3

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31
Q

4 Features of australopithecus afarensis skull?

A
  • Low, sloping forehead,
  • Prominent brow ridges above eyes (no deep groove behind like apes)
  • Short sagittal crest in males
    -Spinal cord from central part of skull
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32
Q

3 Features of australopithecus afarensis jaw and teeth

A
  • Prognathic jaw
  • Small, pointed canine teeth (larger than A.africanus)
  • Diastema present
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33
Q

1 Features of australopithecus afarensis pelvis

A
  • Short and wide (human-like) but lacked some refinements supporting human striding gait
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34
Q

5 Features of australopithecus afarensis limbs

A
  • Aligned, non-opposable big toe.
  • Long arms, although shorter than the legs
  • Long curved fingers and toes
  • Bipedal features (e.g. Femurs (short) slanted towards knee, strengthened outer condyles)
  • Powerful arms, with long forearms.
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35
Q

When were Australopithecus africanus alive?

A

3.2 and 2 million years ago

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36
Q

Where did Australopithecus africanus live?

A

Southern Africa

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37
Q

What was the height of males and females Australopithecus africanus?

A

Female: 110cm
Male: 135cm

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38
Q

Brain size of Australopithecus africanus?

A

480cm3

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39
Q

3 Features of Australopithecus africanus skull?

A
  • More human-like features than earlier species, A. afarensis
  • such as smaller brow ridge & slightly arched (not flat) forehead
  • Spinal cord emerged from central part of base of skull
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40
Q

4 Features of Australopithecus africanus jaws and teeth?

A
  • Prognathic jaw
  • Shorter and smaller canines & incisors
  • Diastema was rare
  • Premolar & molar teeth all quite large
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41
Q

2 Features of Australopithecus africanus pelvis?

A

Short and wide – less rounded than in humans
- Fully adapted for walking on 2 legs, but not specialised for striding gait.

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42
Q

4 Features of Australopithecus africanus limbs?

A
  • Aligned, non-opposable big toe.
  • Long arms, although shorter than the legs
  • Long curved fingers and toes
  • Bipedal features (e.g. Femurs (short) slanted towards knee, strengthened outer condyles
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43
Q

When were Paranthropus robustus
alive?

A

1.8 and 1.2 million years ago

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44
Q

Where did Paranthropus robustus
live?

A

Southern africa

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45
Q

What is the brain size of Paranthropus robustus ?

A

520cm3

46
Q

What is the height of Paranthropus robustus females and males?

A

Female: 100cm
Male: 120cm

47
Q

4 Features of Paranthropus robustus skull

A
  • Males had sagittal crest (bony ridge at top of skull) – acted as anchor for powerful jaw muscles.
  • Ape-like cranial features – flat forehead & prominent brow ridge
  • Broad face with flaring cheek bones (shorter, flatter face)
  • Spinal cord passed through centre of skull base (walked upright)
48
Q

3 Features of Paranthropus robustus jaws and teeth?

A
  • Prognathism (less than Australopithecus)
  • Very large molars and premolars (effective for crushing & grinding tough plants), with small canines and incisors
  • Large jaws for attachment of powerful chewing muscles.
49
Q

1 Features of Paranthropus robustus pelvis?

A
  • Similar to Australopithecus as it was built for walking on two legs but without refinements for striding gait.
50
Q

2 Features of Paranthropus robustus limbs?

A

Structures for bipedalism
Arms long compared to legs

51
Q

When and where was homo habilis found, and why given that name?

A

Fossils of new Homo species found in 1964 in Olduvai George, East Africa dating back to 1.75 million years ago.
- Named Homo habilis (“handy human”) to indicate tool making (earliest tool maker)

52
Q

4 Characterics of early homo species?

A
  • Larger brain and smaller teeth than australopithecines – suggests meat was included in diet
  • More robust hands – powerful grasp and suitable for climbing trees.
  • Suggests bipedal during day (climbing to food-gather) and possibly slept in trees at night.
  • Features between apes and Homo sapiens
53
Q

When were homo habilis alive?

A

2.3 and 1.5 million years ago

54
Q

Where did homo habilis live

A

East Africa

55
Q

The height of homo habilis females and males

A

Female: 110cm
Male: 130cm

56
Q

Features of homo habilis body type?

A

Taller than gracile australopithecines and stood more erect

57
Q

Size of homo habilis brain

A

610cm3

58
Q

5 Features of homo habilis skull

A
  • Brain case becomes fuller & more rounded due to expansion of brain
  • Slight forehead begins appearing
  • Small, arched brow ridge – smaller & shorted than ancestors
  • Central foramen magnum (bipedal)
  • Reduced facial projection compared with earlier species
59
Q

3 Features of homo habilis jaw and teeth

A

-Moderate prognathism
-More rounded arc arrangement of teeth (like modern humans)
-Smaller teeth – incisors still quite large

60
Q

Features of homo habilis pelvis

A

Short and wide

61
Q

3 Features of homo habilis limbs

A
  • Relatively short legs and long arms (ape-like)
  • Slightly curved finger bones, indicating a strong power grip
  • Able to form a precision grip
62
Q

What is homo erectus?

A
  • First humans to show modern, human-like body – indicates life on ground rather than in the trees
  • Thought to be the first human species to migrate out of Africa into Europe and Asia
63
Q

When and where homo erectus fossils found?

A
  • 1.6 mya to 100,000 years ago – some extend to 35,000 years ago.
  • East Africa, into Europe & Asia
64
Q

12 Characteristics of a primate

A

Characteristics:
- grasping fingers and toes
- first digit opposable
- pentadactly
- nails instead of claws
- poor sense of smell
- four incisors both upper and lower jaw
- brain large and complex
- cerebrum size increases as primates evolve
- not restricted to breeding season
- rhythmic sexual cycle
- one offspring at a time
- long period of parental for offspring

65
Q

6 Changes in size of cerebal cortex in primates

A
  • One of most significant features of primate evolution.
  • Part of brain responsible for complex function (vision, memory, reasoning, manipulative ability) –> progressively increased in size.
  • Natural selection explains increasing size of brain relative to size of body
  • Apes & humans – strong pattern of convolutions.
  • Brain becomes larger and more convoluted.
  • Allows development of skills and response to environmental problems.
66
Q

Describe 9 trend in mobility of digits in primate

A
  • Increasing mobility and ability to move digits independently of one another - highly mobile
  • First digit opposable and increasing length results in increased effectiveness of opposability
    -opposability of big toe lost in humans when foot became weight-bearing rather than grasping
  • maintain longest thumb increasing ability to manipulate objects with hands.
  • claws flattening to nails allowing grip in trees
  • sense receptors under nails and friction ridges on ends of digits for grip/manipulating objects.
  • higher primates have nails on all digits
  • Highly mobile digits allow skilful manipulation of objects – e.g. precision grip.
  • Amount of contact between index and thumb unique in humans enables most effectively handling of small objects
67
Q

Order of primate evolutonary changes

A
  • Noticeable trend from lemurs → monkey → ape → humans
68
Q

What is an adaptation?

A

any characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its natural environment.

69
Q

What is the foramen magnum and what is the position

A
  • Hole in skull where spinal cord joins brain.
  • Located centrally in base of cranium
    in humans
  • towards back of skull in quadrupeds.
  • Gradually moved forward to balance on top of vertebral column (bears weight)
  • Apes require large neck muscles to hold head in position.
70
Q

4 Adaptations toCurvature of spinal column

A
  • Double curvature in humans (S-shape)
  • Wedge-shaped vertebrae (from forward to back) in lumbar region form S shaped curve.
  • improves body balance in upright position & enables head to balance on neck.
  • S shapes curve brings vertebrae directly under centre of gravity of the skull.
71
Q

3 Adaptations to Jaw

A
  • Apes have protruding jaw which has been gradually reduced (by natural selection) to flatter facial profile of humans
  • Jaw bone is small and non-protruding
  • Allow skull to balance on top of spine with minimal muscular effort.
72
Q

6 Adaptations toPelvis

A
  • Vertebral column articulates with pelvis
  • Shorter and broader in humans
  • Bowl shape supports abdominal organs when standing/foetus in pregnancy (wider in females)
  • Broad hip bones provide attachment for large buttock muscles – moving legs and keep upper body erect.
  • Attachment of femurs(its large head) is wide apart, contributing to carrying angle
73
Q

6 Adaptations to the Carrying Angle

A
  • Shape/orientation of pelvis result in hip joint being directly under trunk/head
  • allows weight of body to be transferred to legs.
  • legs Longer than arms, contributing to a low centre of gravity.
  • Head of femur fits into hip socket (acetabulum) and converges towards knee forming angle (carrying angle).
  • Ensures weight distribution close to central axis which enables striding gait instead of swaying side-to-side.
  • Weight falls through outside of femur (opposite for apes)
74
Q

3 Adaptations to the knee

A
  • two-part hinge joint (one on either side) surrounded by ligaments – outer hinger larger and stronger due to greater weight distribution.
  • Centre of gravity falls in line slightly in front of knee resulting in force trying to bend knee backwards – opposed by ligaments.
  • This resistance produces joint that requires no energy to support standing body.
75
Q

3 adaptations to the foot

A
  • distinctive adaptation for bipedalism due to lost prehensility (big toe aligned with others).
  • Weight distribution: tibia → talus (ankle bone) → tarsals → metatarsals & phalanges (via arch)
  • Metatarsal shaped to form two arches - longitudinal (front to back) and transverse (side to side) enabling perfect bipedal, striding gait (walking in way hip and knee fully extend).
76
Q

4 Adaptations for Centre of Gravity

A
  • Point where all weight of body concentrated.
  • Approx ½ total height is leg length which lowers centre of gravity (and increase length of stride)
  • Apes 1/3 height is leg length and therefore, centre of gravity at chest.
  • Lower centre of gravity contributes to stability when moving bipedally.
77
Q

2 Characteristics of Striding gait

A
  • When foot hits ground, weight transmitted from heel along outside of foot, cross ball of foot (via transverse arch) and to big toe.
  • At final moment of striding, whole weight of body propelled by big toe.
78
Q

Height of homo erectus?

A

145 – 185 cm

79
Q

4 Features of homo erectus skull

A

brain size: 1050cm3
- Large face with low, sloping forehead, massive brow ridge and broad, flat nose
- Broad skull with sharp angles at rear (unlike curve of modern humans)
- Very thick skull bones, small central ridge (midline keel) along top.

80
Q

3 Features of homo erectus jaws and teeth

A
  • Large, thick jaw without pointed chin but shorter and more compact than previously.
  • Reduced size of molars
  • Curved dental arcade – rounded at the front
81
Q

Features of homo erectus limbs?

A

Like those of modern human, although bones were thicker suggesting physically demanding lifestyle.

82
Q

What is Homo heidelbergensis.

A
  • Fossils found between 250,000 and 350,000 years ago show a transition between H. erectus and H. sapiens – some classify as own species Homo heidelbergensis.
83
Q

What are neanderthals?

A
  • First fossil found in Neander Valley, Germany in 1856 and many more found throughout Europe, Asia and northern Africa since.
  • Existed in Europe during last of the ice ages – adapted to harsh environment:
84
Q

When and where were neanderthals alive?

A
  • Between 300,000 and 28,000 years ago
  • Europe and the Middle East
85
Q

Height of male and female neanderthals?

A

Female: 156cm
-Male: 168cm

86
Q

8 Features of neanderthal skull?

A

brain size:1500cm3
- Long and low brain case
- Occipital bun, larger than humans
- Thick brow ridges, receding/flat forehead, elongated skull
- Flared zygomatic arches
- Depression at back of skull for neck muscle attachment
- Large, round eye sockets (orbits)
- Broad, large nose and mid-face region showed face projection

87
Q

3 features of the neanderthal jaws and teeth?

A
  • Larger, more robust prognathic jaw
  • Lacking a chin
  • Larger teeth than humans
88
Q

Features of the neanderthal pelvis

A

Wider from side-to-side than modern humans

89
Q

2 Features of the neanderthal limbs

A
  • Thick bones and large joints indicating strongly muscles arms & legs
  • Shorter shin bones & forearms than modern humans – proportions typical of living in colder climates
90
Q

When and where were homo sapiens found

A
  • 300,000 years ago to present
  • Worldwide
91
Q

Height of homo sapiens?

A

Female: 160cm
- Male: 175cm

92
Q

4 Features of homo sapien skull?

A
  • Short base & high braincase (broadest at top).
  • Rounded back of skulls suggests reduction in neck muscles
  • Small face with projecting nose bone, tall forehead & limited brow ridge
  • Quite square eye sockets (orbits)
93
Q

5 Features of homo sapien jaws and teeth

A
  • Short jaw resulted in flat/near vertical face – has also affected teeth arrangement.
  • Parabolic shape with side teeth splaying outwards.
  • No retromolar gap like Neanderthal
  • Lightly built & protruding chin for added strength (only species with)
  • Small teeth (compare with earlier species) – especially incisors & canines
94
Q

What is cultural evolution?

A
  • culture: anything learned.
  • Cultural evolution can be seen in the gradual improvement of tools, better methods of obtaining food, increased sophistication of language and a host of other changes culminating in highly complex culture.
95
Q

5 Trends found in tools

A
  • Increased manipulation of materials
  • Increased complexity of tools
  • Greater variety of materials being used to make materials
  • Improved workmanship and development of equipment needed to manufacture the tools
  • Increased specialisation of tools
96
Q

5 Characteristics of Australopithecine tool use

A
  • Range of pebble tools found – choppers (tennis ball size), chisels, scrapers and flakes (marble size)
  • Referred to as OLDOWAN stone tools.
  • lasted between 2.6 – 1.7 mya found in Olduvai, Africa
  • to use scrapers precision grip must be used
  • First stage of cultural changes – enabled Australopithecines to exploit great range of habitats and allowed expansion out of Africa, colonise other areas
97
Q

2 Characteristics of Australopithecine culture

A
  • areas once occupied by them reveal existence of home bases: where hunters and foragers searched for food
  • no use of fire
98
Q

3 characterstics of Tool use of Homo habilis

A
  • continued to use oldowan tools
  • some sharpened or shaped by striking one stone with other
  • used for skinning, chop meat, breaking bones, crushing plants,digging up roots
99
Q

6 Communication of homo habilis

A
  • worked in groups, some collecting food and sharing it at home base
  • indication social organisation
  • increased pressure for spoken language.
  • Some evidence of bulge in speech-producing area of brain
  • Larynx not capable of complex sounds.
  • Marks in animal bones found at fossils sites conclude that early Homo were both hunters and scavengers of meat.
100
Q

4 Diet of homo habilis

A
  • lived in grasslands and were hunter-gatherers
  • diet consisting of plant material, with supplementary meat from scavenging/hunting
  • meat required for brain development
  • relates to evidence of an increase in cranial capacity
101
Q

3 Culture of homo habilis

A
  • evidence they were both hunter and scavenger coming from fossil bone
  • no. of bones show cut marks made by stone tools and also teeth
  • evidence shows that they were more scavengers and that as Homo evolved, hunting become more important
102
Q

4 Characteristics of Tool use of Homo erectus

A
  • referred to as Acheulian tools
  • lasted 1.7 mya – 200,000
    in St Acheul, France
  • tools flaked around all edges, first in one direction then another, forming roughly two face lumps
  • used as hand axes
103
Q

4 diet and hunting of homo erectus

A

-use of fire, shelter and range of tools enable H. erectus to be independent of environment.
- evidence they were skillfully hunters, using a variety of techniques to capture game
-well-organised hunters capable of logical thought and ability to communicate
- butcher marks on fossil bones suggest systematic tool use and routine meat eating

104
Q

6 Culture of homo erectus

A
  • use of fire helped predators away, game warmth and light
  • used to stampede animals
  • enables cooking increasing range of foods that could be eaten
  • mutual cooperation
  • establish complex society
  • possible complex spoken language
105
Q

6 Tool use of neanderthal culture

A
  • Mousterian Tools
  • lasted 200,000 – 40,000 in Le Moustier, France
  • production of stone flakes that can be rimmed to form various cutting, scraping, piercing and gouging tools
  • flake tools can be joined on to a handle, spear or arrow
  • increased effectiveness of tools
  • enabled to become good clothing markers
106
Q

4 Culture of neanderthal

A
  • buried their death suggesting belief in afterlife
  • ceremonial burial practised
  • cared for disabled member of their group
  • developed social system of sharing food and other resources
107
Q

7 Culture of Homo sapiens

A
  • 40000, moved into europe bringing innovations
  • allowing survival of cold climates
  • were well established and makers of blade tools -> CRO MAGNON PEOPLE
  • larger brains
  • hunters and gatherers
  • animals providing meat and clothing
  • first speices to create art and murals
108
Q

Three types of cro magnon tools

A

Aurignacian
Solutrean
Magdalenian

109
Q

What is 4 characteristics of aurignacian tools

A
  • first tools of sapiens
  • age range 43000-26000 found in Aurignac, France
  • blades made by removing long, flat rectangles from core stone
  • flakes of stone with parallel sides
110
Q

4 characteristics of solutrean tools ?

A
  • age rande between 22,000 – 19,000 found in Solutré, France
  • characterized by willow lead and laurel leaf points.
  • made by carefully retouching blades produced from original stone by pressure flaking
  • serve little practical purpose
111
Q

5 characteristics of Magdalenian tools

A
  • age range between 18,000 – 12,000
    found in La Madeleine, France
  • bone and antler tools made using a burin, or chissel cutter
  • this was a significance advance in tool making - created a tool used to manufacture other tools
  • burin: a blade shape with sharp cutting point
  • burin used to cut bone, antler, stone to make tools and artwork

WACE HB (6 decks)

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