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AQA A-LEVEL R.S: Philosophy > Evil and Suffering > Flashcards

Evil and Suffering Flashcards

1
Q

Define Moral Evil:

A

Acts committed by human beings, such as murder, theft, rape, etc.

It can also refer to evil that comes from human inaction, e.g. where someone does not help another person who’s in danger.

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2
Q

Define Natural Evil:

A

Suffering caused by nature/the natural world, e.g. disease, famine, storms, floods, earthquakes, tsunamis.

Usually seen as being produced by the chance operation of the laws of nature (a flood does not “intend” or “choose” to drown you).

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3
Q

Define suffering:

A

A mental/physical pain / hardship/ distress brought about by both moral and natural evil.

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4
Q

What is “The Fall”?

A

Moment in the Book of Genesis when Adam and Eve eat from the Tree of Knowledge. As a result, sin enters the world.

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5
Q

What is “Original Sin”?

A

A term coined by St Augustine.

Doctrine that, as a result of The Fall, all humans are born innately sinful. We “inherit” a tendency to sin.

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6
Q

Natural Evil figures and stats that can be used in essays:

A
  • Natural disasters kill on average 45,000 people every day.
  • 3.1 million children die from poor nutrition and hunger every year.
  • In 2021, there were 401 natural disasters worldwide
  • Over 6.5 million people have died from Covid-19 since the outbreak began.
  • Thailand’s Boxing Day Tsunami (2004) killed 220,000 people.
  • Haiti’s 2010 earthquake killed at least 159,000 people
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7
Q

Moral Evil figures and stats that can be used in essays:

A
  • 70-85 million people were killed during WWII
  • 6 million Jews- and millions of others- were murdered in the Holocaust.
  • Over 400,000 people die from homicide each year.
  • 1 in 4 women and 1 in 20 men have been sexually assaulted or raped.
  • 1 in 6 children have been sexually abused.
  • There are at least 1.5 million theft offences recorded in England and Wales every year.
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8
Q

What is the “Inconsistent Triad”?

A
  1. God is omnipotent
  2. God is omnibenevolent
  3. Evil exists
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9
Q

A quotes from Epicurus about the inconsistent triad:

A

“Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then hence evil?”

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10
Q

How can this “logical problem” of evil be solved?

A
  1. Deny God’s Omnipotence?
  2. Deny God’s ombenevolence?
  3. Deny evil exists? (St. Augustine)
  4. There is a sufficient reason why God allows evil to exist (free will)
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11
Q

What is the evidential problem of evil?

A

-The evidential problem of evil is expressed simply:
There are known facts about evil that are evidence against the existence of God.

  1. Evil that is overwhelming in quantity and quality
  2. Evil that is pointless because it serves no useful purpose.
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12
Q

Example of the evidential problem of evil:

A
  • “The Great Dying”:
    (251-252 million years ago)…

90% of marine species and 79% of land species disappeared, probably through different natural disasters. NASA website describes as “almost the perfect crime…some perpetrator- or perpetrators- committed murder on a scale unequalled in the history of the world”.

  • William Rowe: Fawn in a forest…

Suppose that in some distant forest a lightening strike causes a forest fire. A fawn is trapped in the fire, horribly burned, and lies in agony for several days before dying. The fawn’s agony appears to be pointless; it suffers and dies alone and does not lead to any “greater good” whatsoever.

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13
Q

How does the existence of evil disprove God’s omniscience?

A

Omniscience = all-knowing

If God knew how much overwhelming and purposeless evil would occur, why did God bother to create the universe?

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14
Q

What is the Free Will Defence?

A

Argument that God has given humans free will to bring about “greater good”. A world containing creatures who are significantly free (and freely perform more good than evil actions) is more valuable, all else being equal, than a world containing no free creatures at all.

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15
Q

What two things do “Free Will Defence” supporters have to prove?

A
  1. That free will necessarily leads to moral evil- it is not possible to have free will and not moral evil in the world.
  2. That the results of having free will are worth the price.
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16
Q

Quotes supporting the Free Will Defence:

A
  1. St. Augustine: “for a runaway horse is better than a stone”
  2. CS Lewis: “Free will, though it makes evil possible, also makes possible any love or goodness or joy worth having.”
  3. Swinburne: The less [God] allows men to bring about large scale horrors, the less freedom and responsibility he gives.
  4. Alvin Plantinga: The actualisation of a world containing moral good is not just up to God alone; it also depends upon what the significantly free creatures of the world would do.
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17
Q

Hierarchy of Good and Evil to explain the Free Will Defence:

A

First Order Goods:
Happiness and Pleasure

First Order Evils:
Unhappiness, Pain and Suffering

Second Order Goods:
Sympathy, Kindness, Understanding, Compassion, Love, Generosity, Selflessness.

Second Order Evils:
Spite, Cruelty, Jealousy, Greed, Selfishness. Meanness.

Third Order Good: FREEDOM

Fourth Order Good: GOD

  • God is justified in allowing evil in the universe, because it permits the freedom to choose or reject the good. It teaches us to be morally responsible and gives meaning to moral goodness.
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18
Q

Explain the first morally sufficient reason for the Free Will Defence (Alvin Plantinga):

A
  • Morally sufficient reason 1- Free Will is the Greater Good.
  • “God’s Creation of persons with morally significant free will is something of tremendous value. God could not eliminate much of the evil and suffering in this world without therby eliminating the greater good of having created persons with free will with whom he could have relationships and who are able to love one another and do good deeds.”
  • Free Will may be the greater good.
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19
Q

Explain the second morally sufficient reason for the Free Will Defence (Alvin Plantinga):

A
  • Morally sufficient reason 2- Natural Evil was caused by humans
  • “God allowed natural evil to enter the world as part of Adam and Eve’s punishment for their sin in the Garden of Evil.”
  • Natural Evil may be the result of Original Sin, which bought about disharmony.
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20
Q

Mackie REJECTS the Free Will Defence…
Explain his criticism:

A
  • “If God had made men such that in their free choices they sometimes prefer what is good and sometimes what is evil, why could he not have made men such that they always freely choose the good?”
  • He believes it is logically possible for a person to make free, good choices, all of the time. God could have created humans so that they would only make free, good choices.
    BUT, God evidently did not do so.

Therefore:

  1. Either God lacks the power to do so (is not omnipotent)
  2. OR God is not loving enough to do so (is not omnibenevolent)
  3. Either way: the Free Will Defence FAILS

Mackie concludes: God does not exist.

21
Q

Explain Plantinga’s defence against Mackie’s criticism:

A

“It would be impossible to casually determine human actions and at the same time allow them to be morally free”

  • Free Will is morally important. That means that a world in which human beings possess free will is superior to a hypothetical world in which they do not.
    If human beings were forced to do nothing but good, that would represent a denial of human free will (Mackie is wrong!)
  • God must bring into being the best possible world that he is able to. It must therefore follow that God must create a world with free will.
  • God is not responsible if humans choose to do evil; God is operating under self-imposed constraints that mean God will not compel human beings to do good (because this would be a denial of human free will).
22
Q

“A world with genuine free will is much more valuable than one without, where humans in effect robots.”

Explain this strength of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • Plantinga asserts that God has created “the best of all possible worlds”.
  • Therefore, this world contains free will, because this is much more valuable than one without it.
  • As St Augustine wrote, “a runaway horse is better than a stone”.
  • Evil and suffering is therefore the “price” that is paid for the greater good of genuine free will.
23
Q

“It satisfactorily explains moral evil- the criminal justice system works on the assumption we have free will”

Explain this strength of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • The Free Will Defence satisfactorily explains the existence of moral evil as the result of human free choices.
  • This is consistent with the legal system, which holds people accountable for what are understood as freely chosen actions.
  • People are held liable for their actions, suggesting they are personally responsible for them.
24
Q

“It is consistent with St Augustine’s traditional teachings on the cause of Natural Evil (The Fall)…”

Explain this strength of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • “For [Augustine]…Natural evils, such as diseases, are divinely ordained consequences of a primeval fall” (Lois Malcom)
  • St Augustine (354-430) is one of the most influential Christian theologians in history. His idea of original sin remains popular today.
  • “For [Augustine]…All of nature is afflicted and disrupted by the fall of Adam and Eve, which imposed a penalty on all of the natural world, altering its course and structure. The physical world was perfect and without sources of pain and suffering before the pair broke the law” (Rosenburg).
25
Q

“Some believe it does not sufficiently explain the existence of Natural Evil.”

Explain this weakness of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • Natural disasters are not caused by human beings- they cannot be held morally responsible/ criminally liable for hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.
  • Plantinga’s explanation (that natural evil is the consequence of Adam and Eve’s actions) requires a literalist of the Genesis.
  • For many theists, Genesis is seen as being literally/ historically true, and so this dependency is a weakness in his argument.
  • It appears the defence cannot account for all types of evil and so is an unsatisfactory defence.
26
Q

Define Determinism:

A

the doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will. Some philosophers have taken determinism to imply that individual human beings have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions.

27
Q

Define Libertarianism:

A

Libertarianism is a political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core value. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom, emphasizing equality before the law and civil rights to freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of thought and freedom of choice

28
Q

“It is based on the assumption that we have Free Will. This has not been proven.”

Explain this weakness of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • The Free Will defence relies on a libertarianism account of free will. There is continued debate around the assumption that humans have free will- psychologists and neuroscientists continue to study this question and have no definitive answer.
  • Determinists believe that we DO NOT have free will, which would undermine the success of the free will defence.
29
Q

“Considering the amount of evil and suffering in the world, is free will really worth it?”

Explain this evidential problem/weakness of the Free Will Defence:

A
  • Is free will worth its price tag? Considering the extent of evil and suffering in the world, it is not clear whether freedom is really worth so much pain.
  • At the point of creation, God must have known to full extent of human evil, so why did he bother to create such a universe?
30
Q

Summarise St Augustine soul-deciding theodicy:

A
  • All humans are born sinful (Original Sin) because they “inherit” sin from Adam and Eve, who ate from the Tree in the Garden of Eden (The Fall). This explains the cause of evil and suffering- humanity!
  • We, therefore, depend on God’s grace in order to be saved from our sin. This is in the form of Jesus Christ’s atoning crucifixion on the cross. Not everyone is saved.
31
Q

Summarise St Ireneaus soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Humans did not fall from perfection- God intentionally created us imperfect.
  • This is because, throughout our lives in this world, we will “grow” into being perfect beings who are capable of entering heaven, if we follow the teachings and example set by Jesus Christ.
  • We develop and grow through the soul-making process into “children of God”.
32
Q

Who was John Hick:

A
  • A philosopher and theologian (1922 - 2012).
  • John Hick is inspired by St Ireneaus, who argued that humans are created imperfect and then have to “rise to perfection” and work towards achieving the “likeness” of God during their lives on earth.
  • Hick is a universalist who believes that all people will eventually be saved; everybody will ultimately be brought into a moral and spiritual relationship with God.
33
Q

Summarise Hick’s soul-making theodicy:

A
  • The world is a place of soul-making. It therefore has to contain the full range of moral and natural evils, so that humans can develop virtues such as courage, sympathy, empathy and compassion.
  • These second-order virtues are the qualities by which we become “children of God”. Our suffering- and response to it- makes us virtuous and Christ-like. Evil AND SUFFERING ARE INSTRUMENTAL.
  • “And whoever does not carry their cross and follow me cannot be my disciple”- Jesus, Luke 14:27.
  • He emphasises the idea of God as a Father - a Father cannot force his children to love him; instead, children love their parents through a free response to their parents’ car. Parents develop their children’s characters by teaching them how to live responsibly within the world.
34
Q

Explain Hick’s belief in epistemic distance:

A
  • God set an epistemic distance between himself and humanity.
  • This is a distance in knowledge, so that humans cannot know for sure there is a God.
  • There is therefore, a lot we don’t understand, such as why evil and suffering exist.
  • This means that having a relationship with God is a CHOICE, reflecting the fact that a loving relationship is only authentic and valuable if it is freely chosen.
35
Q

Quotes on “soul-making”:

A
  • “Our world is not designed for the maximisation of human pleasure and the minimisation of human pain”
  • “God has set us in a world containing unpredictable contingencies and dangers…only in such a world can mutual caring and love be elicited”
  • “Human beings were brought into existence as intelligent creatures…not the perfect pre-fallen Adam and Eve of the Augustinian tradition.”
36
Q

Quote on epistemic distance:

A

“In order to be a person exercising some measure of genuine freedom, the creature must be brought into existence, not in the immediate divine presence, but at a distance from God.”

37
Q

“Epistemic distance can justify any kind of evil (by saying it is beyond our understanding)”

Explain this strength of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Hick can use the “epistemic distance” to justify any form of evil, including animal suffering and apparently pointless suffering.
  • The “distance” between humanity and God means our knowledge is limited.
  • His thesis is that the end (heaven for all) justifies the means.
38
Q

“It is consistent with St Irenaeus’ ideas about the purpose of evil”

Explain this strength of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Hick’s theodicy has roots in the thinking of Irenaeus and Origen. Hick’s contemporary theodicy is grounded in Irenaeus 2nd century thinking.
  • He believed that the purpose of God creating this world was soul-making for rational moral agents. We are not created perfectly but in a state of imperfection, so that we may rise to perfection.
  • In order to achieve the “likeness” of God described in Genesis, we must be refined and developed.
  • Humans are a work in progress.
39
Q

“It is consistent with evolution and the idea that humanity develops over time”

Explain this strength of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Darwin’s theory of evolution teaches that humans physically developed over time.
  • Similarily, Hick’s theodicy teaches that our souls develop over time. It makes sense that humans are a “work in progress”.
  • This is an idea that has taken hold in popular culture- we are not born as a “finished product” (e.g, the educational system). John Locke: Tabula Rasa.
40
Q

“The idea of universal salvation is compatible with beliefs about God’s omnibenevolence”

Explain this strength of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Hick’s theodicy teaches us that we will all ultimately reach God’s “likeness” and the perfection necessary to enter Heaven.
  • This is known as “universalism”- the idea that everybody will ultimately be saved. This is arguably more benevolent than Augustine’s “soul-deciding” theodicy, where everybody is born into sinfullness but only a few will be saved. With this theodicy, everybody has the opportunity…and WILL ultimately be saved.
  • HOWEVER- is it really worth it? Why do some people have to face so much more suffering than others, if we’re all going to the same place afterwards anyways?
41
Q

“The theory does not justify pointless suffering in the world”

Explain this weakness of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Whilst some suffering may actually help us to grow, there is some suffering that appears completely pointless. For example, animal suffering is pointless.
  • HICK’S RESPONSE: EPISTEMIC DISTANCE! Pointless suffering, including the suffering experienced by animals, is needed in order to maintain the epistemic distance between humanity and God. The epistemic distance is also supported by The Fall (Genesis), which suggests there is a separation between humanity and God.
42
Q

“The theory does not justify the quantity of evil the world- does the end really justify the means?”

Explain this weakness of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • DZ Phillips argues that you cannot see evil and suffering as instrumental for a greater good.
  • We should not use other people’s suffering as a means to an end. - “we cannot speak of moral growth in this way”.
  • We cannot justify the existence of horrendous evils, such as the Holocaust, by stating that we need to grow deeply in responding to them. “Here you go, a bit of cancer should toughen you up”.
  • HICK’S RESPONSE: All evils are a matter of degree. If we remove evils like the Holocaust, then the next-to-worst evils will seem the very worst.
  • “If we ask whether the business of soul-making is worth all the toil and sorrow of human life, the Christian answer must be in terms of a future good great enough to justify all that has happened on the way to it”.
  • We cannot comprehend the greatness of the good that awaits in Heaven.
43
Q

“The idea of universalism is rejected by some Christians. This arguably undermines Hick’s theodicy”

Explain this weakness of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • According to Hick’s theodicy, everybody will ultimately be saved. This raises questions for some Christians:
  1. What is the point of Jesus’s sacrificial death and resurrection is everybody can become worthy of salvation on their own (is Jesus simply a role model and could this undermine his divinity?”
  2. What does this mean for traditional doctrines of election and judgement; will people who caused evil/suffering be saved?
  3. What does this mean for the “Solus Christus” principle?
    If we’re all saved anyway, why go through so much suffering?
44
Q

“If humans were made “imago dei”, surely they were made fully perfected?”

Explain this weakness of the soul-making theodicy:

A
  • Genesis teaches humans were made “imago dei”. It is “The Fall” which means humans lose their perfection. Surely this means God created humans fully perfect, rather than simply with this potential?
  • HICK’S RESPONSE: Genesis says we are made in the IMAGE and LIKENESS of God. He says we are made with his image and then grow into his likeness over time. We are created with potential rather than completion.
45
Q

Summarise Griffin’s Process Theology:

A
  1. God did not create everything but “fashioned” pre-existing matter.
  2. God is powerful but not omnipotent. He cannot control the physical aspect of the universe anymore than the human mind can control the internal workings of its body.
  3. God can PERSUADE chaotic matter into organised forms, over time.
    God does not intervene directly, (e.g. miracles).
  4. The evidential problem of evil does not arise; God cannot intervene.
    There is simply a long process of divine persuasion.

The theodicy: God is not the source of suffering. Instead, God shares in our suffering. He suffers alongside us as the “soul” of the universe.

Does this sound like the God of the Bible????

46
Q

Explain Griffin’s “panentheistic” view:

A

Griffin believes that the relationship between God and the universe is panentheistic; the universe exists within God and God exists within the universe. Both God and the universe exist eternally and uncreated. God “fashioned” the universe from pre-existing matter.

47
Q

How is Griffin’s Process Theology a resolution to the logical problem of evil?

A
  • Process Theology has an answer to the Logical Problem of Evil- God is not omnipotenet. Therefore, it is possible to reconcile the existence of God with the existence of evil…God does not have the power to control it.
  • HOWEVER: Omnipotence is seen as one of the key characteristics of God by most theists. This is a key teaching from the Bible (infallible Word of God). Is a God who lacks omnipotence worthy of worship?
48
Q

How does Griffin’s Process Theology emphasis God’s omnibenevolence?

A
  • Process Theology presents God as sharing in humanity’s suffering, because “He” is the “soul” of the universe and has a panenthestic relationship with it.
  • Therefore, people feel closer to God, which can be reassuring during times of suffering. It also takes away the blame potentially given to Him.
49
Q

“Why would God start a process He could not control?”

Explain how this is a weakness of Griffin’s Process Theology:

A
  • It is not clear why God would intentionally start a process (by fashioning the universe) that He could not control…especially if He has the omniscience to know the ultimate outcome (the quantity of evil and suffering in this universe).
  • What reason did God have to go ahead with a process that he would lose all power over, and that would end up leading to so much unnecessary evil and suffering for humanity?
  • GRIFFIN’S RESPONSE: God now suffers alongside humanity, so has empathy.

AQA A-LEVEL R.S: Philosophy (9 decks)

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