Everything here

Question 1

What is Classical Conditioning

Answer 1

the simplest form of associative learning: is when NS is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Question 2

The process of classical conditioning

Answer 2

Before conditioning: UCS triggers an unconditioned response
During conditioning: The UCS and the NS are repeatedly paired together
After conditioning: the following pairing, the NS produces the same response as the UCS. The NS is now a conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response

Question 3

What is Extinction

Answer 3

When a CS is experienced without the UCS over a period of time, the CR is extinguished
i.e. the CS ceases to elicit the CR

Question 4

What is Spontaneous recovery

Answer 4

An extinct response activates again so that the CS once again elicits the CR(generally weaker response)

Question 5

stimulus generalisation

Answer 5

conditioned response to one stimulus cause the same response to other similar stimulus

Question 6

Strength of CC

Answer 6

Supported by many studies conducted on both animals and humans:
- Pavlov demonstrated CC of salivation response in his studies of dogs
- Watson and Rayner demonstrated that a fear response can be conditioned in a human baby(Little Albert)
- Brom et al concluded that human sexual response can be largely explained by CC

Question 7

Weakness of CC

Answer 7

only explains the acquisition of a small range of simple behaviour and therefore a partial explanation for learning behavior
- CC only explains the acquisition of simple reflex responses like salivation, anxiety, and sexual arousal
- can’t account for complex chains of learned behavior

Question 8

Application to CC

Answer 8

therapeutic application to systematic desensitization and flooding

Question 9

Pavlov CC 8 markers

Answer 9

The study has low generalizability as Pavlov generalize from dogs to human. Humans have different brains from dogs and much more complicated thoughts and motives, humans may have other motives that drive them equally just strongly not to be conditioned.

This is a reliable study because it has standardized procedures and it was carefully documented. There are multiple researchers to observe the dog and measure their saliva. This gives the research inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability as it has been repeated over 25 years.

The study may have low ecological validity due to the artificial nature of Pavlov’s test and because dogs were kept in unusual conditions. Pavlov placed each dog in a sealed room that didn’t allow the dog to see, smell or hear anything outside. This was to prevent other stimuli(extraneous variables) from making the dog salivate. The dog was strapped into a harness to stop it from moving and its mouth was linked to a tube that drained saliva into a measuring bottle. The dog is exposed to the usual stimulus which is the tuning fork sound.

Question 10

Operant conditioning

Answer 10

when a behavior is followed by an event, and the nature of this event increases or decreases the probability of the behavior being repeated

Question 11

positive reinforcement

Answer 11

something nice is introduced following a behavior, increase the probability of that behaviour being repeated

Question 12

negative reinforcement

Answer 12

when someting unpleasant is removed following a behavior, increase the probability of that behaviour being repeated

Question 13

primary reinforcement

Answer 13

when the things act as a reinforcer has biological significance e.g. food, shelter, sex

Question 14

secondary reinforcement

Answer 14

things that act as a reinforcer have been associated with primary reinforcer
e.g. money can use to buy food

Question 15

positive punishment

Answer 15

when something unpleasant is introduced to the individual following a behavior, decreasing the probability of that behaviour being repeated

Question 16

negative punishment

Answer 16

when something nice is removed following a behavior, decreasing the probability of that behaviour being repeated

Question 17

Skinner box - OC

Answer 17

If the rat pressed the lever, it get to supply the food pellet
Some parent chambers also contained electrified floors which could be used to punish behaviour

Question 18

Strength of OC

Answer 18

supported by many studies conducted on both humans and animals
- there are consistent findings regarding the ability to modify behavior using reinforcement and punishment

Question 19

Weakness of OC

Answer 19

only partial explanation of behavior
only explained how existing behaviors are strengthened or weakened, not where behaviors originate
- can not account for new behavior which an animal has never performed before

Question 20

Evaluate operant conditioning as a way of explaining human behaviour.

Answer 20

AO1
 Operant conditioning refers to the process of learning through
consequences.
 If people are punished as a consequence for a particular
behaviour then they are more likely to stop the behaviour.
 Positive reinforcement results in people being more likely to
repeat the behaviour as shown in token economy programmes.
 Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant
stimulus to strengthen behaviour.
AO3
 Skinner’s (1948) animal studies showed that rats would press a
lever to receive a reward, so behaviour can be learned through
consequences.
 Thorndike (1911) provides support for operant conditioning
theory, however kittens were used so they have limited
generalisability to humans.
 Mestel and Concar (1994) found a token economy programme
to be successful in treating cocaine addicts who were given
shopping vouchers as rewards for staying “clean”.
 The influence of hormones on human behaviour suggests that
operant conditioning does not fully explain human behaviour.

Question 21

difference between continuous and partial reinforcement

Answer 21

continuous: behaviour always reinforced
particial: behaviour sometimes reinforced

Question 22

Fixed and variable ratio reinforcement

Answer 22

fixed ratio: reinforcers given after fixed number of behaviours
variable ratio: reinforcer varied around a mean

Question 23

modifying behavior

Answer 23

systematic use of operant conditioning to increase frequency of desired behaviour

Question 24

shaping

Answer 24

reinforce successive approximations
e.g. start by reinforcing behavior vaguely like what you are seeking, but only continue when is stepping closer to the target behavior

Question 25

Strength of reinforcement schedules

Answer 25

many studies. e.g. Latham and Dossett found that mountain beaver trappers responded better to variable ratio pay in which they received 4 dollars for a trapped animal

Question 26

Weakness of reinforcement schedules

Answer 26

can explain extrinsic motivation in humans, but ignores the role of intrinsic rewards(powerful motivators in humans)
- reinforcement properties only provide a partial explanation for human behaviour

Question 27

SLT Modelling

Answer 27

one individual displays social behavior in presence of an observer

Question 28

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 28

not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Question 29

observation

Answer 29

paying attention to the behaviour of the model

Question 30

imitation

Answer 30

behavior is copied

Question 31

stages of social learning

Answer 31

1. Attention to modeled bahaviour
2. Retention of the observed behavior
3. Reproduction of the behavior in an appropriate situation
4. Motivation to repeat the behavior because of vicarious reinforcement

Question 32

Strength of SLT

Answer 32

many studies.
e.g.
- Bandura’s studies showed that children would imitate an aggressive model who demonstrated aggression against an inflatable doll especially if the model was the same sex and was rewarded for doing so
- Nicol and Pope showed that chickens would selectively high-status same-sex models in pecking a pad for food

Question 33

Weakness of SLT

Answer 33

not a complete acquisition of social behaviour
genetic factors are important as well
Kendler et al. showed that identical twins are more similar in their levels of aggression than non-identical twins
strongly suggests aggression is genetically influenced and not simply a product of modeling

Question 34

Acquisition of phobias by classical conditioning
* context question

Answer 34

NS initially creates no fear and is paired with UCS which already triggers a fear response, then produces a CR of fear
* Watson and Rayner - Little Albert study

Question 35

Maintenance of phobia by OC

Answer 35

Mowrer explained when someone with a conditioned phobia responds by avoiding the fear-provoking stimulus, their anxiety lessons and this provides negative reinforcement for the avoidance behaviour, that’s what maintains the phobia
* the rat jump over the barrier to escape the shock, negative reinforcing and avoidance response is learned

Question 36

Strength of phobias

Answer 36

many studies support the conditioning and social learning in the acquisition of phobias
* Watson and Rayner study of Little Albert
* maintenance of fear in animals through avoidance comes from Mowrer’s study of rat

Question 37

Weakness of phobias

Answer 37

learning is not a complete explanation for the acquisition of phobias
- we fear snake or the dark naturally, but not of other dangerous things like cars or guns which can be even more dangerous

Question 38

systematic desensitisation

Answer 38

a behavior therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response like anxiety
The anxiety hierarchy: involves drawing up a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations related to a phobic stimulus
Relaxation: teaches the client to relax as much as possible
Exposure: exposed to the low level phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state, and increasingly add up the intensity

Question 39

flooding

Answer 39

the phobic client is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus with a gradual build-up in an anxiety hierarchy

Question 40

evaluation of systematic desensitization

Answer 40

Strength: SD is effective in the treament of specific phobia
* Gilroy et al treatment of spider phobia
Weakness: might not be effective for all cases, can only treat behavioural phobia, not multiple phobia or past trauma

Question 41

evaluation of flooding

Answer 41

cost-effective
may not be effective for all phobias