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Biodiversity > Everything Else > Flashcards

Everything Else Flashcards

0
Q

Tunicates (urochordata)

A

Sea squirts,
larvae are free swimming
Adults are sessile

pump water using two siphons

shows most of major chordates like a notochord

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1
Q

Lancelets (cephalochordate)

A

Small eel like animals

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2
Q

Sister groups to vertebrates

A

Tunicates and lancelates

Lancelates most likely related to vertebrates

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3
Q

Fishes- what are they

A

All vertebrates excluding tetrapods

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4
Q

Agnatha- what are they and when were they diverse

A

Jawless fishes

Diverse in the Paleozoic. Only two living groups

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5
Q

Gnathostomata

A

Jawed fishes

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6
Q

Hagfish

A

One of two living jawless fishes

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7
Q

Lampreys

A

One of two jawless fishes

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8
Q

Chondrichthyes

A

Sharks and rays

Not bony. Have cartilage only

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9
Q

Osteichthyes

A

Bony fishes. Have scales that articulate (makes for fairly flexible but rigid trunk that aids in swimming) and overlap

Internal swim bladder

Well ossified internal bony skeleton

Large variety of body forms and morphology

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10
Q

Actinopterygii

A

Ray finned fishes
Bulk of diversity of fishes- teleost fishes

Found in any water habitat

Teleost fishes have uroneurals- bones in the tail that stiffen the doral lobe of the tail and support dorsal fin rays—gives them greater swimming power

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11
Q

Dipnoi

A

Lung fishes

Diverse during Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Only 3 genera survive in Southern Hemisphere

Evolved ability to breathe air

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12
Q

Crossopterygii

A

Lobe finned fishes

Large predators during Devonian

Now at least two known species

First specimen of coelacanth discovered in 1938 in s Africa

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13
Q

Coelacanth

A

Two species currently known

In western Indian Ocean and Indonesia

Deep water habitats

Opportunistic bottom drift feeder. Feed on other fishes, Cephalopods etc

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14
Q

Causes of cichlid radiation

A

Old hypothesis: speciation resulted in isolation in smaller lakes around lake Victoria

Problems: satellite lakes only have a few species and so cannot explain the bulk of diversity

Sexual selection driving speciation

Females choose the males. Males only have color. Maintains reproductive isolation between species

Cannot explain “rock” species - each group of rock islands in Victoria has it’s own species assemblage but satellites have no rocky islands

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15
Q

Decline of native freshwater fishes

A

Overfishing

Pollution and agricultural runoff- water gets murkier, females can’t tell the color of males, so species barriers break down

Introductions of exotic species - tilapia into lake Victoria

Intro of Nile perch. Then it went thru a population explosion, which caused decline in native fish diversity

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16
Q

Causes of cichlid radiation - old hypothesis? problems with that hypothesis?

A

Old hypothesis: speciation resulted in isolation in smaller lakes around lake Victoria

Problems: satellite lakes only have a few species and so cannot explain the bulk of diversity

Sexual selection driving speciation

Females choose the males. Males only have color. Maintains reproductive isolation between species

Cannot explain “rock” species - each group of rock islands in Victoria has it’s own species assemblage but satellites have no rocky islands

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17
Q

Ichthyostega

A

Earliest known land vertebrate til tiltaalik was discovered

Fish like fin rays, notochord entering braincase

7 digits on hind limb

Skull and ankle bones unique and different from other

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18
Q

Living amphibians - lissamphibia

A

Monophyletic with 7000 living species

Three main groups:
Anura/tail less amphibians - frogs and toads are the largest group

Urodele/Caudata- newts and salamanders

Caecilians- limb less

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19
Q

Ichthyostega

A

Earliest known land vertebrate til tiltaalik was discovered

Fish like fin rays, notochord entering braincase

7 digits on hind limb

Skull and ankle bones unique and different from other tetrapods

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20
Q

Causes of global amphibian declines

A

Introduced species

Various pathogens - fungal, bacterial, viral

Increased UVB radiation

Habitat destruction

Climate change

Exploitation- sold as food pets

Pollution and pesticides

Synergies - interaction between UVB radiation , climate fluctuation, and parasitic infection

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22
Q

Anapsids (an amniote)

A

Turtles

Skull has no opening in the back of the skull

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23
Q

Synapsids (an amniote)

A

Led to mammals

One opening in back of skull

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23
Q

Function of openings in back of skull (temporal openings)

A

Reduces concentration of mechanical stress in the skull

Room for increased attachment and bulging of jaw muscles

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24
Q

Diapsids (an amniote)

A

Rest of reptiles including dinosaurs and birds

Two openings in back of skull

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26
Q

Reptiles

A

Highest diversity of group during Mesozoic - dominant, terrestrial and aerial, some marine

major extinction during K-T mass extinction

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27
Q

Lake Malawi in africa - how many major clades?

A

Lake Malawi - has two major clades

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28
Q

Lake Victoria - how many major clades?

A

one

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29
Q

Cichlids and Cyprinids - which is more diverse and where is each found?

A

Cichlids more diverse and found in lakes

Cyprinids found in rivers

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30
Q

tiktaalik rosae - what are its tetrapod traits

A

Tetrapod traits- neck: head and shoulders differentiated- could move it’s head around on neck

Ribs- had a full set. Was air breathing and supported body

Head was much flatter compared to fish with eyes on top of skull like crocodile

Tiktallik couldn’t walk but the front fins could support weight

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31
Q

two major groups of diapsids

A

archosaurs and lepidosaurs

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32
Q

Lineages of archosaurs

A

pseudosuchia - crocodiles and relatives

ornithosuchia - dinosaurs and birds

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33
Q

lineage of lepidosaurs

A

squamata - lizards, snakes, etc

34
Q

major groups of turtles

A

pleurodira and cryptodira

sister groups; represent an old split

35
Q

Pleurodira

A

turtle group

horizontal contraction and folding of neck

in s. hemisphere in fresh water

36
Q

Cryptodira

A

turtle group

vertical contraction of neck

absent in s. hemisphere

37
Q

examples of reptiles

A

turtles, alligators, crocodiles, gavialidae, sphenodontidae

38
Q

squamata

A

5 main lineages:
iguanius, gekkotans, amphisbaenians, autarcoglossan, snakes

so many body forms - more than tetrapods
anaconda - gecko

live everywhere except antarctica

39
Q

Major groups of Diapsids

A

Archosaurs and Lepidosaurs

40
Q

Lineages of Archosaurs

A

Archosaurs are a monophyletic group with two lineages - Pseudosuchia and Ornithosuchia

41
Q

Pseudosuchia

A

crocodiles and relatives

42
Q

Ornithosuchia

A

dinosaurs and birds

43
Q

Ornithscians

A

included herbivores like stegosaurs, hadrosaurs, and ceratopsians

44
Q

Saurischians

A

two major lineages are sauropods and theropods (coelusaurs - tyrannosaurs, dromaeosaurs, birds)

45
Q

Archaeopteryx - what is it? what are its characteristics?

A

a bird that has qualities of both a bird and a dinosaur/reptile

Characteristics:

  • 0.5 meters long
  • combination of feathers and -reptilian traits
  • skull triangular but with large eyes and teeth
  • long tail lined with feathers
  • limbs with claws
  • feet with 3 toes in front and one in the back
  • bones hollow
  • feathers well developed
46
Q

Feathers of birds - what are they? Types of feathers? Why did they evolve?

A

Complex structures made of a unique form of keratin

Types of feathers: contour feathers, down feathers, semiplumes, filoplumes, bristles

Feathers evolved in dinosaurs most likely for insulation

47
Q

The avian skull - characteristics

A

Early birds had reptilian teeth in the jaw, but their teeth were lost over time, so teeth absent in all modern birds

  • toothed jaw evolved into the beak
  • beaks of living birds covered with a keratinized material
  • skull as a whole is reptilian but with much larger brain and eyes
  • avian brain tightly fills the brain case - not true for reptiles
  • all or part of upper jaw moves relative to braincase - unique feature
48
Q

Muscular Gizzard - what is it used for

A

Since birds don’t have teeth, they need another way to break down food

the gizzard does this for them -grinding is often augmented by ingestion of grit and stones

49
Q

Pneumatic bones - what are they

A

bones in birds that are hollow and very light but with an internal set of buttresses that make them strong

50
Q

Skeletal rigidity in birds - how is it produced?

A

avian body is very compact and rigid.

it is produced by fusing many bones in the skull and elsewhere

51
Q

sternum of birds - how is it improved for them

A

keeled and highly modified to accommodate expensive flight muscles

keel provides a large area for muscle attachment
`

52
Q

Flight muslces of birds - which ones are they and what do they do

A

Supracoracoideus - raises the wing when it contracts

pectoralis - much larger and provides the downward stroke in flight

combined, these two muscles can account for ~35% of body weight of some birds

53
Q

Carpometacarpus - what is it

A

a unique structure formed by the fusion of wrist and hand bones in modern birds

54
Q

Distinctive characteristics of bird feet

A

3 in the front, one in the back - the perching foot

the 5th toe is lost. but its present in reptiles

55
Q

Types of avian wings?`

A
  1. elliptical wings - short and broad; most passerines, doves, woodpeckers
  2. high-speed wings - elongate; swifts, swallows, falcons
  3. high aspect ratio wings - ideal for gliding; albatross, other seabirds
  4. slotted soaring wings - vultures, eagles, storks
56
Q

Arboreal origin of flight - what is it? what are problems of this hypothesis?

A

Gliding as a precursor to flapping of powered flight

Problems:

  • adaptations for gliding and flapping flight are very different
  • in flying squirrels and flying lemurs, the proximal elements of the limb are enlarged
  • but in birds, distal elements are enlarged
  • in general, bird limbs are closer to adaptation for terrestrial locomotion than gliding
57
Q

Cursorial origin of avian flight - what is it? what are problems of this hypothesis?

A

From running along the ground to flying

Problem:
its not clear how biomechanically feasible this hypothesis is. In particular, running to flight transition is problematic

58
Q

Wing-assisted incline running (WAR) - what is it?

A

Running and flapping at the same time on an incline led to eventual flight

the most likely hypothesis for origin of flight

59
Q

Loss of flight in birds - how does this happen?

A

Flightlessness has evolved in many bird lineages at different times

  • associated with situations favoring selection for large body size
  • common situation in isolated oceanic islands without predators
60
Q

morphological changes associated with loss of flight

A

size increases in most cases

keel or sternum is reduced/lost

muscles and bones of wing and pectoral girdle are reduced or lost

flight muscles are lost

feathers tend to degenerate

61
Q

Extinction of birds on islands

A

correlated with arrival of humans

largely due to predation by humans and introduced animals - rats, dogs, pigs

pacific islands heavily impacted

62
Q

Living Mammals vs Reptiles

A

Mammals: endothermic homeotherm
Reptiles: ectothermic poikilotherm

Mammals: 1 bone in lower jaw (3 missing bones evolved into middle ear)
Reptiles: 4 bones in lower jaw

Mammals: teeth not replaced continuously
Reptiles: replaced often

Mammals: brain much enlarged and specialized

new forebrain structure Neocortex

suckling and milk production

63
Q

Early synapsids divided into 2 lineages

A

Pelycosaurs and Therapsids

64
Q

Pelycosaurs - characteristics; how were they linked to mammals?

A

Reptile look alike

had long/tall neural spines embedded in tissue = more surface area/used for thermoregulation

The only trait linking mammals and pelycoaurs is the synapsid condition

65
Q

Therapsids - characteristics; how are they linked to mammals?

A

They are more advanced, and is the real stem group to mammals

included both carnivores and herbivores
one lineage - cynodonts - led to mammals

66
Q

Hadrocodium - what is it

A

the extinct group most closely related to living mammals

67
Q

Three groups of living mammals

A

Monotremes, Marsupials, and Eutherians

68
Q

Mammalian traits and reptilian traits of monotremes; examples of monotremes

A

Mammalian traits:

  • single bone in lower jaw
  • 3 inner ear bones
  • hair
  • milk production
  • high metabolic rate

Reptilian traits:

  • egg laying, no live birth
  • primitive shoulder girdle
  • skull with many reptilian characters
  • cloaca present
  • no external ears

platypus, anteaters - all restricted to Australia and new guinea

69
Q

What are some characteristics of a platypus?

A
  • have a coat of fur
  • aquatic
  • females lactate yet lay eggs
  • males have venom similar to reptiles
  • genome is a mix of reptiles and mammals
  • milk protein genes are conserved despite egg laying
70
Q

Characteristics of Marsupials; examples of Marsupials

A
  • live birth but short gestation times
  • born as larval animals
  • develop in moms pouch
  • brain small relative to eutherians
  • well developed sagittal crest for attachment of jaw muscles
  • number of teeth variable and different from Eutherians

opposum, tasmanian wolf, tasmanian devil, dasyurus, parameloids (bandicoots), diprotodonts (koalas, wallabies, kangaroos,etc)

71
Q

Megafauna in deep sea

A

Fishes known from 7.2 km depth; most
have lost swim bladders & are negatively
buoyant

sessile megafauna: Mushroom coral, anemone, sea pens

72
Q

Possbile causes of deep sea diversity

A
  1. Stability-time hypothesis: constant environment → stable
    ! !biological interactions → specialization
    Lack of disturbance → microhabitats (complex burrows)
  2. Biological disturbance: predation by megafauna reduces
    competition among macrofauna → coexistance
    Macrofauna in turn crops meiofauna
  3. Patchy food resources: food-falls are generally patchy and can
    support high species diversity
  4. Large area: Depths > 1000m cover 3 X 10
    8
    sq. km in world
    oceans. Large area should be able to support many species
73
Q

Source-sink hypothesis for abyssal diversity

A

none of the deep sea species are endemic to that area- theory is that they migrated / sink down to abyss

74
Q

anthropogenic impacts on deep sea - disposal

A

sewage, pharmaceuticals, co2, wrecks, clinker

75
Q

anthropogenic impacts on deep sea - exploitation

A

fishing, mining, pipelines, science, ghost fishing, oil and gas,

76
Q

anthropogenic impacts on deep sea - ocean acidification and climate change

A

warming temps, hypoxia, nutrient loading, stratification, ocean acidification

77
Q

Causes of small geographic ranges for species

A

Speciation/extinction dynamics
Ecological effects -
Habitat specialization, physiological tolerances etc.

historical effects

78
Q

physical factors that limit geographic ranges

A
  1. Physical:
    Barriers - mountains, ocean, etc

Temperature - some evinroments are beyond physiological limits

seasonality - ocean currents, salinity, hot summer, cold winter

  1. Absence of suitable habitats
  2. biotic interatcion - predators, competition, mutualism
  3. Adaptation and gene flow - local adaptation (outward) and gene flow (inward)
79
Q

Dispersion and vicariance

A

Dispersion - species first evolves, then actively moves across a barrier to a different area and from here they diverge A–> B –> C

Vicariance - the species didnt actually actively move; they were separated somehow, maybe from tectonic activity, to a different area, and the group that got moved away formed a diff species B - formations of barriers is what separated the species, not the species moving

80
Q

2 ways to be endemic

A

originate in an area and never disperse

range collapse

Biodiversity (2 decks)

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