everything Flashcards

Question

what are 5 characteristics of psychopathology models?

Answer 1

``` organisational perspective continuity vs discontinuity developmental pathways transactions mutlifinality and equifinality ```

Answer 2

development is hierarchical - increases in complexity and oragnisation (e.g Piaget's theory of cog development) stage-salient issues - need to be addressed for development to move onto next stage stage-salient events - can lead to strengths or vulnerabilities

Answer 3

Romanian orphan adoption study (Rutter, 1998) found generally those adopted after 6 months had poorer cognitive development although some catch up between 6-11 for bottom 15%

Answer 4

3 different pathways for mental disorders associated with conduct problems: 1. life-course persistent (worst outcomes) 2. adolescent-onset (due to expansion of amount of friends and adopting conduct problem behaviours from them) 3. childhood-limited

Answer 5

1975 bidirectional links between parents and childs beh. parent driven effects: proactive parenting longitudinally associated with decreased levels of behavioural problems in children (Denham et al., 2000) remote father-infant interactions at 3 months predicted increased behavioural problems at 1 years (Ramchandani et al., 2013) child driven effects: boys with condcut disorders elicited more demands and neg reposnses when interacting with mothers and mothers of controls (Anderson, Lytton & Romney., 1986)

Answer 6

Cicchetti &; Rogosch, 1996 particular risk factors may ead to different child outcomes e.g depression in parents -> emotional problems/behavioural problems

Answer 7

Cicchetti &; Rogosch, 1996 different risk factors may lead to same developmental outcomes e.g harsh parenting, parental psychopathology and poverty may all lead to child behavioural problems

Answer 8

the sociocultural approach Vygotsky not interested in children's capabilities at different points in time but what they can achieve cognitively when capabilities e.g memory improved through social interactions (social and cultural)

Answer 9

used syllogism - required to use logic illiterate people unuable to answer question requiring logic as concrete not abstract way of thinking also didn't understand why asking question if they knew the answer

Answer 10

mediators are tools such as language and writing which assist thinking processes (e.g to understand others and access ideas) help children become more effective probem solvers and understand the world use different mediators depending on child's age

Answer 11

pretend play facilitates imaginative thinking as children act out situations they don't understand and learn rules in a non punishing situation can practice skills

Answer 12

elementary mental functions - basic cognitive abilities: memory, perception and attention - biological (babies born with these capacities) and occur spontaneously higher mental functions - due to social interactions: problem solving and voluntary action - require several cognitive processes and mediators

Answer 13

illustrates how cog development is determined by child's iinteractions by more experienced adults enables assessment of child's potential when conditions are optimal what they can do with assistance, pans out to what they can do with help of adult (ZPD), pans out to beyond child's current level

Answer 14

form of self-directed dialogue to helop child solve problems and directs the thining processes and activities transformed into inner speech with maturation goes from irrelevant to task -> relevant to task-> using inner speech to solve problems

Answer 15

reflects child's egocentrism and has no use at all (actually a limit of preoperational stage) shows deficits in child's thinking and serves no function

Answer 16

1. scaffolding 2. reciprocal instrucition 3. community of learners 4. guided participation 5. intent community participation

Answer 17

more knowledgeable person adjusts amount and type of support offered to child to fit learning needs over course of interaction (to complete a task for example) e.g if child doing well with a puzzle then parent temporarily stops giving assistance scaffolding had indirect effect on child's executive functions at 4 through child's verbal ability at age 3 (increases cognitive ability through language)

Answer 18

based on ZPD and scaffolding tutoring approach for reading comprehension where learner and tutor work together and tutor teaches skills critical in reading comprehension

Answer 19

approach to classroom learning children and adults should collabrate in joint activities as chilren varying in skills and knowledge learn from each other teacher is guided but also participates in learning process

Answer 20

learning that occurs during everyday activities adults guided child's attention and involvement in activites and focuses

Answer 21

intent community participation - participate in authentic activities with aim of learning about activity

Answer 22

any practical implications for child's cognitive development within education system shifts focus from solely individual to social and cultural contexts iin which social interactions benefit development

Answer 23

didn't look at what ways the child's development may affect culture assistance from adults may undermine abilitiy to work independently didn't look at how emotional development impacts cognitive developmente.g whether securely attached kids excel more cognitively

Answer 24

1. affective - feelings about moral issues (e.g superego) 2. behavioural - what people actually do when confronted with moral dilemma 3. cognitive - how you reason about moral issues (Piaget and Kohlberg)

Answer 25

6 months - joy, anger, sadness - basic emotions 2 years - embarrasment (non evaluative), empathy and consciousness 3 years - embarrassment (evaluative), shame and acquisition of rules and standards

Answer 26

shame and guilt are mechanisms for internalisation of social and moral values require self-reflection therefore preventing child performing action again

Answer 27

shame - public exposure and disapproval and negative evaluation of whole self - results in separation and anger guilt - private conscious experience and negative evaluation of specific behaviour - results in apologies and corrective action

Answer 28

1. amoral/premoral - first 5 years - little concern for rules 2. moral realism - 6-10 years - see rules as unchangeable and concerned for them 3. autonomous morality/morality of reciprocity - from 10/11 years - concerned for rules but understand they can be changed and believe in fairness

Answer 29

pre-conventional morality - responsive to rules but sees them as pleasant or unpleasant stage 1. obedience/punishment orientation stage 2. self-interest orientation conventional - internlise parents viewed and focused on pleasing them stage 3. social conformity stage 4. law and order post-conventional - believe in fairness and flexibility of rules stage 5. social contract stage 6. universal ethics

Answer 30

children need to be more active to reorganise thinking organised discussion groups where children solve moral issues where arguments a level above childrens current competence creates cognitive conflict as information discrepant from their view - resolve this by forming a more advanced and comprehensive position (development)

Answer 31

3 month olds preferred a character that helped climber up the hill over one that pushed it down (measured by amount of loooking at the character) didn't prefer character which pushed inanimate object up hill over one that pushed it down

Answer 32

found toddlers had highest level of happiness when giving their own treat to puppet over receiving the treats themselves

Answer 33

``` understanding: appearance versus reality dreams intentions deception self and others are psychological well beings ``` grasping what the mind is and what the mind does

Answer 34

children have difficulty understanding that person sitting on otherside will have a different view of the mountains than they do looking at the cognitive aspect of perspective taking

Answer 35

egocentric can't understand other's mental states and intentions can't take others' perspectives (3 mountains task)

Answer 36

suggesting they don't have theory of mind 3 y/o do make some mistakes in ToM tasks (e.g put finger through safe box despite knowing pretend game, imaginary friends, not understanding in hide and seek that they can see you even if you cant see them and saying friend would guess pencil in smarties box as not grasping concept of false belief) but still able to understand that the mind consists of thoughts even babies have some understanding of ToM e.g intentions of others and discriminate between stranger and mother after 2 days and show preference for patterned over plain and humans over patterned stimuli at a couple of weeks at 4 have representational theory of mind, helping with conceptual understanding of mental states of others, false beliefs, appearnace from reality and rules from which they predict behaviour

Answer 37

children told that boy puts chocolate in drawer but whilst he's out, mother moves it, then asked where will he look for it? those who answer the drawer as opposed to the new location recognise consequences of a person's having a flase belief (element of theory of mind)

Answer 38

child might not fully understand the question being asked, therefore giving an incorrect answer may have theory of mind just not able to communicate it in an effective way through their language might respond differently depending on person asking (mum vs teacher) answers don't allow for degree of performace to be assessed as either right or wrong answer given, not 'half way there'

Answer 39

116 5 y/o twins contributions to theory of mind: 44% due to non shared environment 41% shared environment 15% due to genetics suggesting genes aren't that important and more to do with family environment and friends, school etc (non-shared)

Answer 40

have module in brain facilitating understanding of minds as responsible for processing theory of mind informaton and that about states of others becomes advanced at about 4 y/o but unsure whether active before 4

Answer 41

Perner et al, 1994 found 3 y/os with sibling were more likely to be correct in false belief task than those without maybe due to being exposed to mental states when interacting with sibling

Answer 42

may encourage children through questions and scenarios to think about emotional responses of others, allowing them to be in better position to understand mental states of others development therefore facilitated through asking the right questions and explaining them

Answer 43

Avis & Harris, 1991 found kids from different cultures above 5 predominatly correctly recognised false belief in scenario whereas younger children did not also, children of 4 from west and japan unable to understand difference between real feelings and apparent emotion (facial expression) whereas 6 y/os did suggests biological in origin and supports modularity in brain for processing such information

Answer 44

pervasive developmental disorder characterised by impairments in several areas of development on a spectrum with Asperger's at the higher end autistic behaviours present before age 3 2/3 will have IQ identifying them as having learning difficulties (>70)

Answer 45

difficulty with social relationships, verbal and non-verbal communication, development of play and imagination resistance to change in routine

Answer 46

1. socialisation 2. communication 3. imagination

Answer 47

social isolation as inability to relate to others impairments in joint attention (following anothers gaze to an object) and social orienting (following gaze aorund a room) 4 groups: aloof - withdrawn and don't interact or respond and passive passive - more responsive, very compliant and passive/indifferent active but odd - ask inappropriate questions, don't register feedback from others and don't understand social norms formal - no learning difficulties but respond in very rigid and formal way even to parents, not understanding norms

Answer 48

elective mutism - don't speak despite being capable (1/2) echolalic speech - repeat others words pronoun reversal - confuse you and I lack of prosody - fall/rise in voice to express emotions lack of gestures - nodding of head difficulty at reading faces as gaze rests on chin not eyes

Answer 49

``` rigid behaviour sameness (rock back and forth) resistance to change narrow area of interests sensory processing difficulties e.g hypersensitivies/hypo to pain and sound ```

Answer 50

checklist for autism on toddlers (CHAT) no positive responses to: 1. protodeclarative pointing - using index finger to point 2. gaze monitoring - looking at person not object (1st birthday party video emphasised this) 3. pretend play

Answer 51

ranges from in in every 2000/1000/500 every increasing due to better recognition and widening of criteria for diagnosis and less stigma attached boys outnumber girls (4:1) low cog functioning (2boys:1 girl) high cog functioning (15 boys:1girl)

Answer 52

no empirical evidence supporting either of these causes

Answer 53

meaning cold, rejecting and emotionally unavailable BUT concordance rates between siblings/non-identical twins 3% whereas for identical between 30-80% suggesting not due to parenting style as % woud be more similar (suggesting genetic)

Answer 54

Auyeung, Taylor, Hackett & Baron-Cohen, 2010 higher fetal testosterone (in amniotic fluid) associated with higher levels of autistic symptoms in both genders especially for boys

Answer 55

have below average empathy have above average systemising as prefer closed systems which are highly predictable e.g maths and computers perform poorly on executive function tasks - display difficulties with planning and set-shifting

Answer 56

predicted to fail as needs functions that are impaired in WIng and Gould's triad: socialisation - difficulty with social relationships communication - literalness imagination - inability to suspend disbelief Baron-Cohen et al, 1985 found those with autism had mean verbal mental age of 5.5 but actual age of 12 (similar results in Leslie&Frith's test, 1988) BUT might have been unable to get involved with story requiring them to suspend disbelief/ doll has no mind so question is meaningless

Answer 57

asked about giving mum a bag of wool she wants despite them being swapped around autistic kids gave correct answer ecological validity as potential real life situation

Answer 58

don't understand false beliefs so don't lie therefore, understanding that lies serve to conceal the truth might only be possible if you understand that others hold beliefs that can be true or false e.g in Sodian & Firths's 1992 experiment, autistic kids unable to lie to 'nasty thief' about where treat lay, but were able to lock him in box to prevent him getting what he wanted

Answer 59

Francesca Happe proposed this autism charcterised by a weak central coherence - inability to process information in context to get the gist, pull information all together to extract higher meaning at expense of memory advantages: skills and shortcomings are explained predicts range of superior skills and deficits

Answer 60

not susceptible to Titchener circles (dot inside looks bigger/smaller but actually the same size) due to tendency to focus on every detail, so despite not understanding bigger picture, able to process individual details accurately of stimuli

Answer 61

e.g the sea tastes of salt and ... relies upon noting context of sentence but might say 'pepper' as use words associated and don't look at bigger picture normal kids put sentence in wider context to solve problem

Answer 62

unusually common in autistic populations to reach absolute pitch at a specific ability (remarkable abilities) e.g in memory of a specific thing or music

Answer 63

monkey's separated fromo their natural mothers given either wire mother with feeding bottle or mother with no food but soft cloth found monkeys preferred soft mother and 'contact comfort' 1958

Answer 64

that infants are biologically programmed to form attachments with caregivers for survival attachment therefore innate primary drive

Answer 65

0-2 weeks : prefer listening to human voices over other sounds 2-4 weeks : prefer to listen to mother's voice over other humans and establish eye contact 3-6 months : use social smile 6-9 months : use preferential smile (at caregivers not others) and experience separation anxiety 12-24 months : seek proximity to caregiver 3 years : goal-directed partnership between child & caregiver

Answer 66

``` proximity seeking contact maintenance resistance avoidance behaviour upon reunion ``` measuring between 9-18 months

Answer 67

secure insecure-avoidant isecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment 4th disorganised

Answer 68

interact with unfamiliar adult seek proximity to but are able to separate from caregiver able to return to play and great caregiver positively 56-80% of children in normative population are securely attached

Answer 69

ignore parents when reunited by avoiding eye contact and proximity no preference between caregiver and stranger explore room freely 16-28% of infants in normative population

Answer 70

preoccupied with caregiver (lack of exploration and excessive proximity seeking) distressed by separation and not easily soothed on reunion resist attempts at closeness on reunion 6-12% of infants in normative populations

Answer 71

inconsistent behaviour and strategy for dealing with caregiver wander around/fearful in presence of caregiver and may freeze when approaching them high proportion in maltreating families and as such have positive correlation with psychopathology in the future

Answer 72

1. Q-Sort: caregiver asked to sort cards with child's characteristics into categories 2. projective methods: e.g acting out scenarios with dolls house and doll or describing what they see in photographs ranging from mildly stressful to more so for attachment scenes - weakness with this is if imaginary scenarios are able to elicit and reflect real life attachment behaviours i.e would they act the same as they do with the doll etc. - can no longer use Strange Situation to classify attachment type with older children as lots of experience with separation compared to 1 year olds (school)

Answer 73

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) is a semi-structured interview asked about separation or rejection instances as a child, relationship with parents

Answer 74

1. autonomous (secure) - value close relationships and coherent account of childhood 2. dismissing (avoidant) - deny value of attachment and have idealised representations of attachment relationships 3. preoccupied (resistant) - unable to move on from experiences and over-involved with early attachment relationships 4. unresolved (disorganised) - haven't resolved feelings regardig negative event in childhood e.g death or abuse

Answer 75

``` parenting intergenerational transmission of attachment temperament of child parental psychopathology culture ```

Answer 76

Wolff & Ijzendoorn, 1997: meta-analysis of 1000 mother-child pairs found positive correlation (.24) between sensitive parenting (understanding and responding to babies needs) and secure attachments however, not that strong a correlation so other factors influencing avoidant - distance and anger during closeness resistant - unpredictability between closeness or irritability disorganised - confusing cues and behave in frightening ways (cues in abusive households)

Answer 77

attachments mothers had as child shapes how they interact with their children, reflecting in child's own attachment e.g dismissing to insecure avoidant child as mother denies value of her own attachment needs due to developing internal working models of first attachments which dictate how we form future relationships as base them off these (however some individuals overcome insecure ones to form secure relationships in future-resilient) may also be due to biological factors as shared genes

Answer 78

temperament = personality of baby expressed in ways such as mood and activity levels significant correlation between good mood and little difficulty and security of attachment

Answer 79

Cicchetti et al., 1998 findings that children with depressed mothers more likely to be insecurely attached than children with normal mothers as more likely to interact with babies inappropriately e.g over intrusive or not very often Hobson et al., 2005: found children of mothers with BPD more likely to be categorised as disorganised due to being less available for positive interaction and unstable mood (behaving in confusing and frightening ways)

Answer 80

e. g germany focus on independence of children so reduced interaction, leading to much higher % avoidant (49% compared to UK 22%) e. g Japanese mothers highly involved with babies and rarely separated so leads to excessive resistance behaviour as lack of experience, leading to much higher % of resistant (32% compared to 3% in UK)

Answer 81

associations between secure attachment and better soc/cog development due to more social support, positive peer relationships and motivation disorganised attachment and poorer soc/cog development

Answer 82

e.g ability to experience/express emotions and manage them association betwen secure attachment and increased emotion competence due to parent-child discussions and validation of emotions and positive peer relationships

Answer 83

positive correlation betwen insecure attachment and anxiety (internalising) symptoms .3 (Colonenesi et al., 2011) positive correlation .31 between insecure attachment and behavioural (externalising) problems - much higher for boys and disorganised attachment and when observation assessment (methodological problem?) - also argued increased risk only when other risk factors present e.g lack of father or poor economic status

Answer 84

attachment anxiety: up-regulation of negative affect (over control neg emotions) vigilance to threatening stimuli decreased perceived others' responsiveness attachment avoidance: down-regulation of negative affect (no attempt to control neg emotions) self-reliance decreased social support and perceived others' responsiveness both lead to feeling more negative due to undertaking extreme behaviours regarding negative feelings (up/down regulation) which may lead to internalising/externalising problems

Answer 85

20 years after completing strange situation at 12 months, 32/50 had same attachment classification (Waters et al., 2000) meaning 36% had changed attachment due to: - negative external events e.g divorce - answering adult attachment test in certain way so not objective - attachment type may lead to exerting influences on environment e.g friends chosen, which reinforce attachment, keeping it the same - parents may manipulate how child feels about other parent

Answer 86

1. child-parent psychotheraoy (CPP) 2. video-based intervention to promote positive parenting (VIPP) 3. the circle of security (COS) 4. attachment and biobehavioural catch-up (ABC)

Answer 87

for impoverished/traumatised families and <5y/o focuses on parents childhood experiences and current parenting behaviour explores current stressful situations and encourages emotional communication between parent-child found to decrease: disorganised attachment and PTSD symptoms

Answer 88

home based for <12 months parent and therapist look at hand-written and video material focusing on sensitivity and responding found to increase: sensitivity of parent child's secure attachment

Answer 89

craegivers review parenting videos and attachment-related reflect on their children's needs and when to respond to them (reassurance vs exploration) discuss parenting difficulties with other parents found to increase: security of attachment

Answer 90

for foster parents and high risk population infants between 6-24 months focuses on main challenges foster parents face: children rejecting care, being frightened by parenting behaviours and difficulties providing nurturing care found to: improve attachment and emotional relationship reduce cortisol levels (stress hormone) in children reduce child negative affect during challenging situations

Answer 91

MTP = aims to increase reflective functioning and decrease harsh parenting for substance using mothers MTP had increased scores for caregiving behaviours and higher communication Suchmann et al., 2011

Answer 92

an attachment related disorder related to social deprivation/neglect beginning before 5y/o either inhibited emotionally withdrawn - failure to initiate and respond to social interactions and inhibted/contradictory responses - predominantly those raised in institutions and related to quality of caregiving or disinhibited/indiscriminately social - inability to exhibit appropriate selective attachments e.g excessive familiarity with strangers - identifiable in those raised within institutions and those adopted outside of institutions so not related to quality of caregiving

Answer 93

in a deprived childhood population prevalent in 1.4% all of these had comorbid problems e.g 54% ADHD and 31% conduct problems Minnis et al. 2013

Answer 94

i-self (subjective) - focus on subjective experience - stable identity over time and different situations - sets goals and strives to achieve them (how this is conceptualised leads to different me-self descriptions) me-self (objective) - characteristics can be discovered through self-reflection and observations - contains different dimensions of personal attributes e.g material self (looks), social self (friends) and spriritual self (values)

Answer 95

develops from both social interactions/stimulation (socially constructed) and through cognitive capabilities e.g object permanence - at 9 months understand that objects exist even when not present e.g when behind a screen or when mother not present

Answer 96

1. self-awareness - understanding our emotions and thoughts 2. self-agency - ownership of one's behaviour 3. self-continuity - person is the same 4. self-coherence - slef has a single and coherent dimension

Answer 97

Tronick's still face experiment baby used to receiving feedback from caregivers, as shown by still face of mother leading to visible signs of distress from the infant suggesting need to be socially responded to to develop

Answer 98

rouge on nose test small amount of rouge put on babies nose and then placed in front of mirror if infant touches their nose as opposed to the reflection nose then have acquired self-concept (me-self as object) majority of 2 y/o touched noses whereas none of the 1 y/o touched their nose

Answer 99

salient content: name simple attributes and observable characteristics structure: isolated representations and lack of coherence (all-or-none thinking) valence and accuracy: unrealistically positive and not distinguishing between real and ideal selves nature of comparisons: no direct comparisons sensitivity to others: anticipation of adult reactions (praise)

Answer 100

- salient content: lots of attributes and specific competencies - structure: links between representations which are typically opposites (all-or-none thinking) - valence and accuracy: typically positive and inaccuracies persist - nature of comparisons: temporal comparisons with younger self and wth age mates - sensitivity to others: recognition others are evaluating the self and others' standards becoming self-guides in regulation of behaviour

Answer 101

- salient content: traits labels focusing on abilities and interpersonal characteristics, comparative assessments with peers and global evaluation of worth - structure: higher order generalisations which encompass several behaviours and ability to integrate opposing attributes - valence and accuracy: both neg and pos evaluations, greater accuracy - nature of comparisons: social comparison for purpose of self-evaluation - sensitivity to others: internalisation of others' opinions and standards which function as self-guides

Answer 102

adolescent theory of self more mature and greater coherence and internal consistency and role related attributes

Answer 103

child's ability to modulate behaviour according t the demands of a situation

Answer 104

1. physiological regulation 2. attentional regulation 3. behavioural regulation 4. executive control 5. emotion regulation

Answer 105

emphasises that biological maturation is key in emotional and behavioural regulation the Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) is a marker of physiological regulation * high RSA/greater HR variability in non-stressful conditions * RSA decrease in challenging conditions

Answer 106

3 attention systems which develop within 1st year: 1. reticular activating system - maintenance and adjustment of alertness 2. posterior attentional system - engagement and disengagement of attention 3. anterior attentional system - development of effortful control

Answer 107

Hayes et al., 2009 9 and 1/2 y/os trained to turn their heads when one set of rhyming sounds presented quick to tell difference when both vowel and coda changed but found it harder when only one was changed at a time e.g bat, mat to bet, met

Answer 108

compliance to parental requests - the role of willing compliance - involves initiation or termination of certain activities in line with this e.g can be tested by seeing what happens when parents ask child to tidy toys internalisation of rules

Answer 109

involves working memory and inhibitory control problems implicated with ADHD and addiction problems

Answer 110

extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for evaluating and modifying emotional reactions especially their intensive and temporal features to accomplish one's goals

Answer 111

brain develoment culture family environment delay of gratification

Answer 112

physical outcomes learning and academic outcomes socio-emotional outcomes

Answer 113

Phineas Gage having severe damage to frontal lobes due to iron rod entering his head after accident had very poor self-regulation more studies have demonstrated significant link between prefrontal lobes (at the front of frontal lobes) and self-regulation

Answer 114

in a task, children asked to choose between small immediate reward or larger delayed reward 4 y/os choose larger but delayed whereas 3 y/os chose smaller but immediate

Answer 115

observation - learn that certain conditions elicit emotions emotion contagion - 'catch' emotions of parents social referencing - look to someone else to get info about how to respond to situ emotion coaching - parents are attentive and help label and validate child's emotions teaching emotion regulation strategies - e.g redirect attention parents mental health - links between emotion regulation and disorder related behaviour by parent

Answer 116

asian children score hgiher at self-regulaion compared to US | due to asian children receiving more extensive training in regulating their behaviour

Answer 117

overweight children at 5 y/o had lower emotion regulation, sustained attention and inhibitory control as 2 y/os - Graziano et al., 2010 4 y/os who were better able to control delay gratification had lower body mass 30 years later when controlling for gender (impications for reducing obesity interventions) - Schlam et al., 2013

Answer 118

12 week mindfulness based Kindness Curriculum (KC) & control findings suggest programme promotes self-regulation skills children showed benefits in learning, health outcomes and socio-emotional development Flook et al., 2015

Answer 119

in adolescence, those who were better at delay gratification were better at: academic and social competence verbal fluency better frustration tolerance and lower stress ``` why? able to deploy attention delay enhancing thoughts distract themselves to minimise aversion meta-cognitive knowledge ```

Answer 120

Martinez-Torteya et al, 2009 examined stress factors of: maternal depression, stressful life events and race and low income examined protective factors of: positive parenting, child temperament and cog ability children scoring above cut off of children's behaviour checklist were classified as negatively adapted and when exposed to family violence were 4x more likely to develop emotional and behavioural problems 54% exposed to family violence were resilient

Answer 121

Gray et al, 2015 insightfulness tested and mothers doing questionnaires on children's emotional and behavioural problems those scoring low on insightfulness had children with highest level of emotional and behavioural problems

Answer 122

high persistance high cooperativeness low harm avoidance high self directedness

Answer 123

2007 uncovered key characteristics and environments focussed on attachment, self-regulation and biological reactivity encouraged primary prevention focussed on multi-level analysis

Answer 124

exposure to risk or adversity AND develoment of positive outcomes so resilience is a process not a trait

Answer 125

Wolmer et al., 2015 daily exposure to rocket attacks in Israel reported that when had 4 or more stressful life events then more impairment to social, occupational and other areas of functioning than 1 or 0 stresful events more severe exposure showed more severe symptoms stressful life events and exposure to traumatic events accounted for 32% of variance in PTSD

Answer 126

absence of psychopathology? or more positive outcomes? (social skills, academic etc.) or both?

Answer 127

personal attributes that can lead to maladjustment under stress or adversity e.g child with difficult temperament as worsen negative effects of stressful condition

Answer 128

personal attributes/situations that decrease vulnerability for the development of maladjustment so change effects of risk in positive way

Answer 129

protective factors: attitudes/situations which decrease vulnerability for development of maladjustment * positive attitude e.g optimism and cognitive flexibility * physical exercise: boosts mood and self-esteem, improves cognition and boosts immune system * social support and mentorship: close relationships, role models and teaching resilience * child characteristics: intelligence, emotion regulation, LoC, appraisals and temperament

Answer 130

some children exposed to severe risk show positive outcomes in one domain but have problems in others may be due to protective factors not working the same across all contexts (specific)

Answer 131

hard to know which are the most 'critical' domains and how important the severity of risk or adversity is in terms of outcome as some risk factors may not cause difficulties when in isolation

Answer 132

statistical versus actual risk: what are the life circumstances of different individuals subjective vs objective assessments of risk: what is the individuals perception of the adverse event risk factors tend to co-exist (research focuses on accumulation of factors) a single factor may not cause dramatic difficulties in child's life

Answer 133

Morrison-Guttman and Flouri in Slater and Bremner (2011) each risk factor falls within 1 of 2 categories: presence of risk (1) or absence of risk (0) cumulative risk is summation of risk factors rather than a single individual risk factor that leads to maladjustment as it taxes the individuals capacity to adapt however, assumes that each factor has the same weight on children but might have different impacts (specificity of risk factors)

Answer 134

individuals exhibit fluctations within domains of functioning so resiliency is a dynamic developmental construct and longitudinal studies are key with large sample sizes

Answer 135

look at dynamic nature interactive multiple levels of resilience e.g psychological and biological across time at different time points simultaneous assessments of several domains focus on mechanisms by which protection might be conferred

Answer 136

1. risk-focused: reducing exposure to risk/adversity 2. asset-focused programmes: improving quality and quantity of assets 3. process-oriented programmes: improving systems of adaptation in lives of children

Answer 137

READY psychosocial resilience program leads to changes in positive emotions, coping, cog flexibility, social support therefore changes in psychosocial well-being

Answer 138

levers of community resilience: e.g education, self-sufficiency, partnerships core components of communit resilience: e.g effective risk communication, social connectedness, involvement of organisations and health and well-being of population quality - collect and analyse then use data on building community resilience efficiency - leverage resources for multiple use and maximum effectiveness

Answer 139

1. stress inoculation training 2. hardiness training 3. social support interventions 4. learned optimism interventions 5. well-being therapy

Answer 140

nature - all that man brings with himself into the world nurture - every influence that affects man after his birth believed in innatism: completely disagreed that babies are born pretty much alike instead that our abilities derived from inheritance

Answer 141

innatism/nativism - plato, kant, leibniz, galton empiricism/behaviourism - aristotle, locke, hume and watson

Answer 142

environmentalism believed complete oppositre of Galton in that he believed you can become anything you want and develop any skills you want regardless of your inheritance

Answer 143

interaction first debated by Hogben & Fisher 3 main controversies surrounding this debate: 1. eugenics (Fisher vs Hogben) 2. IQ and race (Jensen) 3. serotnin transporter hypothesis in depression

Answer 144

founded population genetics a eugenicist G x Eb so took statistical approach to gene x environment interactions

Answer 145

suggested statements regarding genetic differences have no scientific meaning without specifying environment ('extrinsic agencies' including pre and post-natal conditions) G x Ed (developmental)

Answer 146

APOE - variant = E4 allele - environmental influence = high cholesterol intake - outcome = eevated serum cholesterol after diertary intake for APOE4 carriers FTO - variant = 'a' allele - environmental influence = low physical activity - outcome = increased obesity for risk carriers with low PA COMT - variant - Val/Val - environmental influence - cannabis use - outcome - increased reports of psychotic symptoms when smoked in adolescence 5-HTTLPR - variant = short 's' allele - environmental influence = life stress and maltreatment - outcome = increased risk of depression

Answer 147

1. diathesis stress (poor outcome focused) 2. differential suceptibility (good and poor outcome focused) 3. biological sensitivity to context (merged into 2.) 4. vantage sensitivity (good outcome focused)

Answer 148

dictates that some individuals are more prone to adverse environment due to dispositional vulnerability (risky genes) disorder caused by interaction between predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences

Answer 149

Caspi et al, 2003 performed G x E interaction study investigating interaction between maltreatment and the serotonin transporter gene (5HTTLPR) - as wanted to find out why not everyone becomes depressed after stresful life events so hypothesised that variation in 5-HTTLPR will moderate psychopathological reactions to stressful life experiences found probability of major depressive episode highest (double) when both short alleles (homozygotes) compared to when long in people with histories of severe maltreatment

Answer 150

2 meta-anlyses found no evidence of GxE interaction on depression (Munafo et al, 2009 and Risch et al, 2009) however, larger meta-analysis by Karg et al, 2011 showed positive evidence for significant G x E effect involving 5-HTTLPR on depression (same gene as in Caspi study)

Answer 151

genetic polymorphism (varying alleles) not about risk but susceptibility to the environment - called developmental plasticity theory predicts that genetically sensitive individuals will have poorer outcomes when the environment is negative but will have better outcomes when the environment is positive

Answer 152

theory predicts that those who are genetically sensitive will have poorer outcomes when neg enviro but better outcomes when pos enviro Ijzendoorn, 2012 indeed, found in meta-analysis that correlations were highest between gene and outcome (pos and neg) when genetically sensitive i.e had the risk alleles (for both dopamine risk alleles and short serotonin transporter allele)

Answer 153

genetic variation predisposes children to certain positive outcomes so focuses on the 'bright side' outcomes Eley et al, 2012 tested hypothesis that polymorphism in 5-HTTLPR would moderate response to CBT in children with anxiety disorders and that those with 's' allele would be more responsive to treatment indeed results were that those with 's' allele had reduced anxiety severity rating at follow-up after treatment

Answer 154

failure to replicate large studies pulication bias model selection what about gene environment correlation?

Answer 155

inward-looking and withdrawn behaviours, which in children may represent the experience of depression, anxiety and active attempts to socially withdraw both depression and anxiety patients suffer from negative affect anxiety - physiological hyper-arousal depression - low levels of positive affect

Answer 156

for certain individuals internalising disorders are pervasive from child to adulthood some adult onset some have constant low levels of depression and anxiety dimensional approach by acknowledging the levels of disorders possessed and the stability of them

Answer 157

some problems more prevalent during old age e.g fear of falling some more prevalent in early childhood e.g specific phobias of monsters then in adolescence may develop social anxieties (different developmental stages of disorder)

Answer 158

high levels of impairment when depressed e.g socially, academically, within family ADHD and disruptive disorder also cause lots of problems for the individuals

Answer 159

excessive anxiety about separation from caregivers or home often associated with somatic complaints 2-5% of children or adolescents

Answer 160

intrusive, repetitive thoughts, obsessions and compulsions e.g washing often co-morbid with tourette's syndrome and tic disorders

Answer 161

e.g social phobia characterised by avoidance of social situations specific phobias affect 7& of school-aged children

Answer 162

fear - adaptive response e.g walking away from a snake anxiety - maldaptive and persistant, response out of proportion

Answer 163

excessive anxiety occurring more days than not for at least 6 months about different events difficult to control associated with at least 3/6 symptoms e.g sleep distrubance, easily fatigued, restlessness causing impairment in important areas of functioning not due to substance abuse or a medical condition

Answer 164

vulnerability risk factors - personal attributes that can elad to maladjustment under stress or adversity - genetics - behavioural inhibition - info processing environmental risk factors - life events - info transfer - modelling - parenting

Answer 165

lower influence in anxiety disorders compared to others e.g autism but anxiety more prevalent when relatives also anxious heritability higher for MZ twins than other siblings - implicating genetics

Answer 166

refers to temperamental pattern of responding characterised by fearfulness or restrain when faced with unfamiliar people/situations strong association between BI and anxiety disorder in children not all BI children develop anxiety disorders, suggesting the presence of other factors also, significant interaction between infants with moderate-high levels of BI and parents anxiety in predicting infants avoidance (Aktar et al, 2013) also found that adolescents scoring highly on BI reprted high levels of anxiety and depression (Muris et al, 2001)

Answer 167

interpretaton of ambiguity - completed measures of anxiety and indicated most likely interpretation of ambiguous scenarios signficant positive links between child's (7-15) and mother's anxiety but threat detection reduced after treatment (Creswell, Schniering & Rappe, 2005) cognitive biases - positive training (resolved ambiguous scenario positively) resulted in more pos and less neg interpretations and associated with lower levels of anxiety (Steinman & Teachman, 2010)

Answer 168

may be bi-directional influences as neg life events may lead to development/avoidance of anxiety disorders but anxiety can predict subsequent neg life events more likely to have more negative life events as more physical health problems so more negative experiences attract negative experiences e.g avoiding social situations so have social deficits so when engage socially may be rejected so loneliness and depression and criticism

Answer 169

Field & Lawson, 2003 examined if transfer of threat info influence child's fears and avoidance result indicated that children receiving neg info reported greater fear beliefs about fictitious monster greater influence when info received from an adult

Answer 170

Gerull & Rapee, 2002 examined efefct of parental modelling on fear acquisition and avoidance of novel stimuli toddlers presented with rubber snake and spider, paired with maternal pos/neg facial expressions showed toddlers more fearful and avoidant when mothers expressed neg facial expressions effects greater in girls than boys strong correlation between controlling parental beh. and anxiety in children (McLeod, Wood & Weisz, 2006) cause it as don't let child develop problem solving skills and instead develop habitual avoidance e.g found parents of anxious children rejected child's plans until suggested an avoidant behaviour so instilling these behaviours

Answer 171

virtual reality e.g for fear of flying - exposure not too anxiety-provoking to replace anxious response mindfulness - more mindful of behaviours cognitive modification bias - change maladaptive beliefs by encouraging thinking in a different way

Answer 172

depressed mood most of the nearly , nearly everyday, indicated through subjective report or observation decreased interest in most activities either weight change or change in appetite change in sleep loss of energy guilt or worthlessness suicidality

Answer 173

substance abuse causing depressed mood medical illness causing depressed mood other psychiatric disorders e.g mania, bipolar and sz beareavement

Answer 174

common in adolescence but also in childhood delays in developmental accomplishments e.g intellectual growth in infancy may predict depressed mood later in life pre-school children have difficulties in verbalising negative feelings so observe e.g play behaviours, social withdrawal, separation anxiety

Answer 175

probability of experiencing depression considerably increases during adolescence probability also much higher in females

Answer 176

females more likely to suffer from depression - differences in emotionality e.g more sensitive to stress and neglife events, more self-reflective, lower self-esteem due to comparisons made, more likely to be teased and experience sexual harrassment also, more likely to report it adolescents more likely to get depression due to - hormonal changes, higher order thinking e.g abstract thinking leading to evaluation against others, independence

Answer 177

``` abuse and neglect parental marital partner changes physical health parental mental health parenting and caregiving ``` focused on parental factors

Answer 178

``` cognition (neg cognitions and attribution style and rumination) dispositional factors (low self-esteem) stress (e.g from neg life events) social skills (poor) physical health academic dissatisfaction ``` focused on personal factors

Answer 179

Davey, 2008 serotonin involved in e.g mood and sleep - low levels are associated with depression norepineephrine is a hormone acting as a nuerotransmitter involved in preparing mind and body for action - associated with depressoin and mania

Answer 180

negative thoughts on: 1. the self 2. the world 3. the future either have narrative of failure or loss

Answer 181

Davidson et al, 2002 activation of left hemisphere = positive emotionality when left part of brain underactivated and right part of brain activated = negative emotionality association

Answer 182

attributions: how depressed individuals think about negative events in their lives more likely to attribute neg events to factors that are: 1. internal - personal 2. stable - always fail - constant 3. global - whole life failure - generalised finding that 5 y/os of depressed mothers more likely to express depressive cognitions about their self-worth, performance and outcome of a competitive game compared to childrne of non-depressed mothers (Murray et al, 2001)

Answer 183

Kovacs & Yarolavsky, 2014 depressed - much more likely to use rumination to cope with difficult situations - use passive strategies - maladaptive strategies that are more likely to lead to maintenance of depression e.g argue with parents - score highly in reassurance seeking from parents and friends - withdrawn thus perpetuation of depression READ BEFORE EXAMS

Answer 184

found very large effects for rumination in depression- significant factor in depression medium effects for problem solving, avoidance and suppression READ BEFORE EXAM

Answer 185

how and why family environment contributes to depression vulnerabities in child due to: - mothers with depression more likely to have children with depression or other disorders e.g as more withdrawn, intrusive and more passive ways of coping with sadness and negative affect so children copy - also implicates genes as vulnerable - higher levels of cortisol (stress hormone) in blood during pregnancy leading to children with less adaptive stress coping mechanisms - exposure to stressful environment due to situation of parents e.g having depression leading to maladaptive cognitions, negative affect and maladaptive behaviour however, not linear due to elements which may envoke resilience e.g factors within child (good emotional regulation strategies etc.) or family environment

Answer 186

1. drug treatments - SSRIs to increase serotonin 2. behaviour therapy - management techniques and exposure 3. family interventions - parent training and communication 4. CBT 5. play therapy (younger children)

Answer 187

externalising disorders - disruptive behaviour disorders in which the deviant behaviour is directed outward e.g oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) - pattern of negative, defiant and disobedient behaviour, established before 8 and affects 2-16% of children childhood-onset conduct disorder - aggression, argumentativeness, bullying and theratening behaviour adolescent-onset conduct disorder - antisocial beh. which is milder and more transitory

Answer 188

1. inattentive - the major difficulty is to maintain attention - trouble holding attention on tasks - easily distracted - forgetful 2. hyperactive-impulsive - major difficulty is the high activity level - leaving seat - lots of talking - trouble waiting their turn 3. combined subtype - children with this have difficulty with attention and activity levels higher prevalence in males 8-12% than females 3-5% and in children than adolescents

Answer 189

disruptive disorders anxiety depression learning disorders

Answer 190

cognitive - learning difficulties language - speech problems motor development emotion - deficits in emotional regulation school performance task performance - low persistance health

Answer 191

longitudinal studies have found that ADHD persists into adulthood in up to 60% of cases Barkley et al, 2007

Answer 192

core symptoms of inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity associated with restlessness, lack of oragnised beh. and emotional instability

Answer 193

for adults, .7 association between impairent and ADHD compared to .3 in children Barkley et al, 2007 rank order from most to least: - education - difficulties in handling academic workload - family life - lower average levels of family cohesion - occupation - less likely to be employed and more likely to quit their job

Answer 194

- genes - environment - brain and neuropsychological factors

Answer 195

Faraon et al, 2005 relatives of people with ADHD 2-8x more likely to also have it compared to those with relatives with ADHD candidate genes are those involved in dopaminergic and serotonin transmission

Answer 196

- smoking during pregnancy is a risk factor for ADHD but may be due to confounders - low birth weight, such as being premature, associated with increased risk of ADHD diagnostic Tarver et al, 2014

Answer 197

children with ADHD are less compliant and less willing to follow parental request parents of children with ADHD are more controlling and less responsive SO likely that parents and children exacerbate each other's beh. (bi-directional influences) Johnston & Mash, 2001 studies show that reducing child ADHD symptoms via medication decreases parent's control and negativity - indicating the child's influence on parenting

Answer 198

artificial food colouring and benzoate preservatives may influence 3 y/o child's behaviour detectable by parents not clinical assessment Bateman et al, 2004

Answer 199

related to disconnection of brain regions of the default mode network (activated when the brain is at rest) hypothesised that those with ADHD have difficulties at transition from rest to task performance but default mode network function is unimpaired during rest Sonuga-Barke & Catellanos, 2007

Answer 200

Barkley argued reduced behavioural inhibition (ability to delay a motor response) is core feature of ADHD results in impaired executive functions including: motor control self-regulation of affect internalised speech

Answer 201

indicates that children with ADHD show dysfunctions of reward and motivation and are impulsive as they try to avoid delay SO choose immediate over large delay rewards Sonuga-Barke et al, 1992 argued ADHD can be explained by both cog and motivational deficits

Answer 202

either: 1. cortico-ventral striatal loop disturbance to impaired signal delayed reward to delay aversion to ADHD - delay aversion measured using Maudsley's Index of Delay Aversion (MIDA) whereby choose between immediate small or delayed large rewards - found both children and adolescents with ADHD had lower % selection of larger reward than those without and significantly lower in children - Bitsakou et al, 2009 2. cortico-dorsal striatal loop disturbance to inhibitory deficits to executive deficits to ADHD - inhibitory deficits measured through go/no-go (either responding asap to go or not at all to no go) - found that children and adolescents more likely to press key when said no go than those without adhd - Bitsakou et al, 2008 - also stop signal task whereby press key when go but when hear sound have to inhibit - reaction time to stop signal slower when adhd (not signficiant) and significant difference between children and adolescents - Bitsakou et al, 2008

Answer 203

Tarver et al, 2014 1. pharmacotherapy - e.g atomoxetine - effects aren't maintained - reluctant to put children on this due to side-effects 2. non-pharmacological interventions - dietary treatments e.g free fatty acid supplementation and exclusion of artificial food colouring produces small reduction in ADHD symptoms (Sonuga-Barke, 2013) - parenting interventions (the New Forest Parent Training Programme aiming to improve parenting style, communication and regulation, leads to reduced ADHD symptoms, increases maternal positive comments but no improvements in maternal mental health) (Thompson et al, 2009) - psychosocial interventions e.g CBT (working memory training), anger management and problem solving

Answer 204

children of mothers with high levels fo ADHD symptoms showed the lowest levels of improvement after the intervention Sonuga-Barke et al, 2002