EVERYTHING Flashcards
What was Piedmont like?
Northern state, ruled by the House of Savoy.
What was Lombardy like?
Northern state, ruled by representatives of the Austrian Empire.
Venetia
Governed according to a constitution.
Great Austrian influence.
Central Duchies
Tuscany, Modena and Parma.
Governed by Dukes with Austrian influence.
Papal states
Ruled by the Pope, reliant on other Catholic countries.
Naples/Sicily
Ruled by the bourbon family.
The king also ruled Sicily so the kingdom became known as the kingdom of Two Siciliys.
When was the French Revolution?
1789.
When was the French attack? What did they acquire?
1796.
Nice and Savoy.
When was the peninsula divided into republics? How many?
1798.
4.
When was Italy divided into three parts? What were these three parts called?
1810.
The French Empire, The Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Naples.
The French Empire
Annexed (add an extra part) to France and treated as the French Empire.
Comprised of Piedmont, The Central Duchies and the Papal states.
The Kingdom of Italy
Comprised of the regions of Lombardy, Modena, Bologna, Romagna and Ferrara.
Ruled by Napoleon’s step-son.
Naples
Did not include Sicily.
What was life like under French rule?
Mixed opinions.
The intellectuals saw French rule as a breath of fresh air, liberals were inspired by the main values of the revolution; liberty, equality and fraternity.
Others were resentful of French rule due to the forced conscription and high taxation imposed by the French
When was the Napoleonic Code introduced? What was the Napoleonic Code?
1805.
Napoléon Bonaparte’s civil code was introduced in Italy following his decision to turn the Republic of Italy into the Kingdom of Italy and crown himself King.
Impact of French rule on the Church?
Suffered severely because their power was greatly reduced.
1809- Napoleon exiled the Pope, temporal power declared to be at an end.
Papal States to be governed by French authorities.
Did not effect the Pope’s spiritual authority as he remained a figurehead.
1814- Monasteries and nunneries closed down in France.
Church land sold off to the nobility.
How were the urban groups effected?
Professionals profited from the increased prosperity introduced by Napoleon which brought financial and business advantages.
Increased infrastructure and relaxation of trade barriers.
Local govts set up.
Improved infrastructure of towns.
Introduced two-chamber representative govt.
Italians absorbed French ideas.
When was the Congress of Vienna and what did it do?
1815.
Engineered by Metternich.
Returned most Italian borders to status quo.
What is a conservative state?
Wanted a compromise between Napoleonic structures and pre-Napoleonic structures, a process called amalgamation.
The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Lombardy-Venetia and the Duchy of Parma.
What is a reactionary state?
Wanted to completely dismantle Napoleonic structures and return to things pre-1796.
Papal states, Duchy of Modena and the Kingdom of Piedmont.
What did the reactionary states target?
Piedmont - Victor Emmanuel I returned it very much back to pre-Napoleonic days. Old customs and barriers were reintroduced, such as Church being in charge of education.
Modena - Habsburg Duke hated Liberals and returned small Duchy to pre-Napoleonic days, much the same as in Piedmont.
Papal States - series of hard line Popes (the zealots) established a tight hold on government, education, culture and politics. Religious persecution increased, any religion other than Roman Catholic was forbidden. Poorest and most backward of the Italian states.
Naples - Bourbon King Ferdinand bought Sicily back under control of Naples (cancelled Sicilian constitution of 1812 which allowed the people to have a say in government). Ferdinand’s rule was oppressive and reactionary, with little success, and in Naples and Sicily began the first of a series of revolutions in 1820
What did the process of amalgamation involve?
Economic: Encouraging growth and investing in public work schemes. Eg. Ferdinand II (Kingdom of Two sicilies) built Italy’s first railway and established communications between Naples and Sicily.
Education: Balancing out religious and secular teaching.
Retaining the class of administrators that Napoleon had left behind and carrying out moderate reforms.
What happened in Piedmont (RM)?
Victor Emmanuel I destroyed anything that the French left (regardless of it’s utility).
Results in rev in 1820s.
In response, reluctantly adapted some reforms and improvement of infrastructure.
What happened in Modena (RM)?
V reactionary and erratic, made friends with a revolutionary.
Results in rev in 1830s.
What happened in Tuscany (RM)?
Austrian leader, therefore received amalgamation reforms, prosperous.
What happened in Parma (RM)?
Most progressive state. Ruled by Duchess Marie- Louise.
Lombardy-Venetia (RM).
Refused to r3einstate aristocratic rights and maintained Napoleonic system of policing.
1820-21 Revolution in Naples/Sicily
Most important- first major challenge to conservative rule after the fall of Neaopolitan authority, demonstrated the strength of desire for an independant government and instilled nationalistic sentiments.
Spaniards had successfully revolted over disputed about their Constitution of 1812. Inspired similar movements in Italy.
General Pepe (leading Cabonaro) forced a democratic constitution on the King Ferdinand I. He agreed to enact it.
Revolutionaries failed to gain popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the Holy Alliance.
Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began to persecute known revolutionaries.
1818- Church censorship, took away freedom of speech which angered the middle class, Naples/ Sicily also forced to combine.
1820- 30 Carbonari members advanced onto Avellino leading to a widespread uprising.
Anti-absolutist goals/ demanded a liberal constitution.
July- Ferd I forced to make concessions and grant a con similar to spain.
1820-21 Revolution in Piedmont.
Leader was Count of Santarosa. Wanted to remove Austrians and unify Italy under constitutional Piedmontese monarchy.
Radicals forced King Victor Emmanuel I to abdicate.
Charles Albert (acting as regent for Charles Felix who was in Modena during the revolutions) granted the Spanish Constitution of 1812 to appease revolutionaries.
Charles Felix returned and disavowed (denied responsibility and support for) the constitution and called on Austria to help him.
Santarosa’s troops defeated by the Austrians at Novara in 1821. Demonstrated the power of Austria and lack of support for nationalism.
1815- VE I set out reactionary policies and reinstated the 1770 constitution.
Santorre di Santarosa- aimed to establish a con monarchy, leading figure.
Revolt broke out and the Carbonari grew in membership. a mutiny of the army in Turin forced him to abdicate and liberals looked to Charles Albert as the successor.
Rev supressed by Austiran intervention
Causes of the 1820 revs
Reinstatement of Church power.
Sicilian separatist desires.
Economic issues.
Reactions to the loss/ promise of constitutions.
Govt inadequacies.
Failures of the 1820 revs
Austrian intervention.
Divisions and weaknesses of the revolutionaries.
Minimal amounts of people, happening in towns not the countryside.
How did the 1820 revs develop nationalism?
Presence of Carbonari- ideas about nationalism developing.
Socio-economic conditions provided a collective experience.
Pope/ army demonstrate that things could change because the group that are supposedly the loyalist want to abolish the ruler.
Austria becomes a common enemy.
How did the 1820 revs hinder nationalism?
Only 30 Carbonari- ideas aren’t widespread.
Suffering was the motivation not nationalism.
None of the regional armies are strong enough to withstand foreign intervention.
Might of Austria.
1831-2 rev in Modena
Enrico Misley/Mettoni wanted to achieve a con for Modena but he was betrayed and jailed in 1831.
Fuelled by the Carbonari.
Duke Francis IV visited Vienna and in his absence the revolutionaries took over and established a provisional govt.
Defeated by Austrian forces, “traitors” arrested, Duke’s power reinstated.
1831-32 rev in Papal States
Organised by the professional classes who resented the oppressive rule of the Church.
Prov gov established in Bologna in Feb 1831.
1831-32 rev in Parma.
Students rioted to demand a con, Duchess Marie-Louise fled and a provisional govt was established by the students.
Contact was made with Modena and a joint army was established.
Causes of the 1830 revs
The role of revolutionaries in Modena, inspired by the French uprisings.
Papal States’ oppressive rule.
Economic conditions.
Why did the 1830 revs fail?
Might of Austria.
Pope receives French troops to overthrow revolutionaries.
Little communication.
Cannot sustain initial gains.
Revolts are not widespread.
How did the 1830s rev hinder nationalism?
Revolutionary liberals wanted to change the inadequate govt not a United Italy.
Clearly little support for the revolt , either through desire or fear. Church is v powerful.
Bologna ignore Modenas plea for help.
Lack of French support:
Declared a policy of non-intervention- didn’t want to destabilise European affairs and engage in conflict with Austria.
Myth of Risorgimento clear.
How did the 1830s revs develop nationalism.
M and Ps response demonstrated communication.
Misleys idea of Italian Nat spread more readily in the 30s.
3 Paths:
1. Piedmontisation.
2. Neo-Guelph.
3. Radical ( Mazzini and Young Italy).
French getting upset with Austrian influence.
What caused the 1848 Revolutions?
1847 - Bad weather, bad harvest, worldwide economic depression, lots of unrest, especially among poorest peasants.
1848 - Vienna had fallen to revolution, and revolutionaries in Italy saw this as a chance to revolt against Austrian hegemony.
Why did the 1848 revs fail?
Overpowered by french forces.
French defend the Pope.
Divisions between the Revolutionaries.
New king of Sicily retains the old constitution.
How did the Pope cause the 1848 revs?
Released 200 political prisoners.
Ended Church censorship
Council of State established.
How did nationalist fervour cause the 1848 revs
Revs in France trigger nationalist/liberalism demands.
Ideological clarity/ spread of knowledge and literacy.
Tobacco protest inspires uprisings against Austrians.
Growth of civil society, music and literature helped spread nationalist ideas and identity into society.
Was nationalist fervour less important 1848
Réaction rather than a cause.
Nationalist fervour was external.
Motivations most often not unification/ independence just liberals wanting shared powers with the monarchy.
How did the conservatives regain power?
Revolutionaries wanted them to stay in place and share power.
Army stayed under control of the leaders and so did the civil servants and bureaucracy of each state.
Fear of revolution.
Able to react to revolutionary propaganda (prop, allocution- Pope said he would never declare a war against Austria).
The church.
Rome Republic 1848-9
Came about when the Pope went to Gaeta, temporary republican government.
No foreign support or support of other regions.
Free press still operated and the reforms encouraged other states to rise against govt, more representation within their reforms:
- secular education.
- land distribution.
Led by Mazzini/ Carlo Armellini/Aurelio Saffi. Declared a republic in 1849.
Important-
- inspired Italian nationalism.
- the defence of the RR by Garibaldi demonstrated the determination of Italian patriots to fight for a unified Italy.
- strengthened the long term cause of the Risorgimento.
Less important:
- Failure of the RR highlighted the diffuculties of achieving unification.
- Little practical impact on unification b/c it was short term
Venetian Republic 1848 ?? check with booklets
The Venetian Republic of 1848, also known as the Republic of San Marco, was a short-lived revolutionary state established in Venice on March 22, 1848, after an uprising against Austrian rule. Led by Daniele Manin, the republic sought independence and aligned with the broader Italian unification movement. Despite initial successes, including resisting an Austrian siege for over a year, Venice surrendered on August 22, 1849, due to famine and disease, marking the return of Austrian control.
First War of Independence 1848
Limited war fought by Piedmont-Sardinia for territory (he broke armistice), led to the abdication of Charles Albert, in favour of his son- CA exiled himself
Vignale Armistice March 1849- withdrawal of Sardinian fleet and essential surrender to Austrian forces.
and the fall of venice/ rome republic/ kingdom of Sicily
Fought for independence with Nationalist motives.
Initial victories but ended with an Austrian victory and return to status quo.
Demonstrated the DESIRE for unification but exposed the weakness of the existing fragmented states AND the might of Austria against regional armies.
Pope Pius Ix’s Allocution 1849
Rejected political ambitions in terms of unification and aimed to protect the Popes status.
Created a revolutionary atmosphere and resentment against the Pope.
Why did Piedmont become the lead state for unification?
Cavour- excellent diplomat is able to converse with a plethora of people. Campaigned for the development of railways.
Status maintained, other states abolished their cons.
Leads liberals to move upwards, seeing Piedmont as a place to discuss ideas.
The only indépendant state, even after 1848 and they have their own army.
Geographically benefit from their neighbours industrial developments:
2. Infrastructure developped under Napoleon.
3. Easier to get alliances.
4. More exposed to developments for the longest time.
Siccardi Laws 1850- Restriction of Church power in Piedmont, secularisation of Piedmont consolidated its role as the leading force.
Textile industry.
Plombières 1858
Involvement in the Crimean War 1855- improved relations with Br and France and politically isolated Austriawho remained neutral in the war. Foreign action VITAL FOR UNIFICATION BY ENSURING SUPPORT
Cavour’s prior establishment of a relationship with Napleon III during the Peace Conference in 1856- gained foreign support and led to…
SECRET ALLIANCE- Napoleon III and Cavour plan to declare war on Austria.
Provoked by a shared desire for Italian unification.
Handshake of Teano 1860
Victor Emmanuel and Garabaldi shake hands over territory.
The role of Napoleon III
Took support of uprisings in Rome, enthusiasm and nationalism, grateful for piedmont.
He was a powerful figure who wanted unification, some were sceptical because he may just want France to become powerful.
The war of 1859 (Second war of Independence)
Provoked by Plombieres 1858.
CAV- anti austrian speech.
Nationalistic emotions increased because cav mobilised the Piedmontese army, no support from Napoleon.
Apr 1859- au sent a ultimatum that cav refused to demobilise the piedmontese army which cav refused. Au replied by declaring war on the 29th.
Napoleon’s motives- could not breach austrian defences, danger that prussia could attack france at his absence, suspicious of cavours activities. However, he sent french troops which allied with Piedmontese ones at battles.
Settlement- (Austria ceded it to France then France gave it to Piedmont Sardinia) Annexation of Lombardy by Sardinia- Piedmont, BUT France gained Savoy and Nice.
-Sardinian victory at the Armistice of Villafranca.
Rulers of the Duchies restored.
Sutria kept venetia.
Cavour’s resignation- July 1859
Betrayal.
Furious that he had not been consulted about the end of the war.
Appalled at the agreement between the Duchies and disliked that Austrian controlled Venetia.
Papal Power
Napoleon said he was prepared for the Pope to lose power over the Legations.
The Legations 1860s- The Papal Legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, Urbino, Perugia, and Velletri, which were major administrative divisions of the Papal States, lost papal control and were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia, paving the way for the unification of Ital
Plebiscites
Opportunity to engineer annexation with the help of the national societies which campagined for the annexation of VE II or a separate kingdom.
Those in liberal states urged for unification with Piedmont, with the kingdom of UNIFIED ITALY being proclaimed in 1861 (weren’t completely unified until 1870 with the capture of Rome).
France was nervous about a powerful, unified nation on its borders.
The role of Garabaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi was a key figure in Italian unification, known for his military leadership and dedication to nationalism. In 1860, he led the Expedition of the Thousand, a volunteer army that successfully conquered Sicily and Naples, weakening Bourbon rule in the south. Rather than establishing a republic, he handed over his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II, helping to unify Italy under a constitutional monarchy in 1861. Though he later attempted to take Rome, his efforts were blocked, but his contributions made him a national hero and a unifying symbol of the Risorgimento.
The reaction of Cavour to Garabaldis aims
Worried that he wanted to invade Naples, conflict would produce a French victory.
Ordered Persano to sail to Naples and create s pro-piedmontese insurrection before Garabaldis rrival.
Ruler of Naples formed a liberal ministry.
Sep 1860 in the Papal states
In September 1860, during the Italian unification process, the Kingdom of Sardinia, led by Victor Emmanuel II, defeated the Papal army at the Battle of Castelfidardo and seized control of most of the Papal States, except for Latium (including Rome), leaving the Pope with only a small territory around Rome.
National society engineered an uprising.
Cavour wanted the army disbanded.
P army invaded and destroyed the Papal army.
Napoleonic army remained intact.
Issues facing Italy in the 1860s.
Civil war.
Economic and political issues.
Mediocre leadership in the north.
Unity or Piedmontisation?
VE reamined VE the II of Piedmont.
The sovereign body of the state would be the king in parliament.
Chamber of deputies elected by 2% of pop.
The administrative structure was centralised.
Piedmontese weights and measures and the idea of trade was imposed on the rest of Italy.
-the majority of officers in Italy’s army were from piedmont
-piedmont’s debts, incurred during the Crimean War and the war of 1859, became Italy’s debts
-the rules derived from Piedmont’s constitution meant that the great majority of people who could vote were from the north
Mazzini New State “sham”- no unification , Italy had “thirst for power, desire to rule and destroy”
1852-61 Cannubio (Cavour)- nothing ideological but pragmatic
1861-76- Piedmontisation
The south 1860s
Politicians had little understanding.
Unsuitable for unification under Piedmontese leadership.
1859- law introduced that stated 2 years of education was compulsory however most were illierate and the peasants needs wre never met.
Introduce taxes to repay debt but provoked the Brigands War.
Cavour’s successer
Ricasoli:
- crucial role in integrating Tuscany into Piedmont by organising a plebscite in 1860.
- as Pm (1861-2) he worked on stregthening united Italy through a series of reforms; admitted G’s voluntary army into regular one, revoked Mazzini’s exile and attempted to restore Church relations (tried to conciliate with the Vatican to restore Church property of supressed religious orders in exchange for payment) which proved unsuccessful.
Lacked parliamentary experience.
Ratazzi
- served as Pm in 1862 and 1867 and was a key supporter of a consitutional monarchy and centralisation.
- he handled G’s conquests controversially, arrested him in 1862 at Aspromonte. This upheld Italy’s agreement with France to leave the Papal states alone but angered Italian antionalists which weakened his political standing.
Garibaldi:
- 1862- set up the society for the emancipation, rallied Sicilians and sailed to the mainland.
- important figurehead.
However, new Italian government was unstable due to the sheer amount of different governments within a short time frame 12 govts between 62-91.
Other opposition:
Church- lost 2/3rd of land, Catholic Church refused to recognise the state’s existence, Cavour persuaded them to give up temporal power.
The issue of venice
Solved by direct, diplomacy and war means.
Napleon and Bismarck where the architects of change.
Bismark wanted domination of Germany.
Napoleon promised neutrality when they met at biarrtiz.
Napoleon helped to broker an alliance between bismark and italy.
The war of 1866
Third war of independance.
Battle of Custozza- Italians defeated by a smaller Austrian army because of poor leadership.
Fought by Austria and Allied Italy with Prussia.
Showcased strength of the ITALIAN ARMY numerically - 200 000 men, Garibaldi’s voluntary army made up 20 000 of these numbers.
High number of casualities between 9 000-11 000 (war lasted a month ish).
Treaty of Vienna 1866- forced Austria to recognise Italy as a legitimate state ALSO agreed to cede Venetia to Napoleon which would be granted to Italy (annexed through a later plebscite)
They won by leveraging Prussia’s victory at the Battle of Sadowa.
Who deserved the credit?
Italians, alliance with prussia secured venetia.
Others, napoleon signed the treaty to ensure venetia was given to italy.
Venetia summary
Venice are apprehensive about unification, previously under the control od the Hapsberg empire.
There were no venetian uprisings during the war,
War humiliation 1866
Battle of Custoza 1866
Inexperience resulted in a humbling defeat
Battle of Lissa 1866
Spurred by Prussia’s demands for government action, under pressure Persano decided to capture Lissa.
Italians rejected Austria’s offer of claiming to be neutral in exchange for venetia because they wanted to fight a war.
The Italian army were unimpressive and made slow advances.
They waged war at sea because they invested massively into the navy their boats were defeated and they were joked about “boats of iron men of wood”.
The navy bickered.
The battle of lissa symbolised the failure of unification.
However, Italy still gained Venetia due to Prussia’s victory on land.
The Venetian Plebiscite- October 1866
Plebscites successful in the election.
The election, however, was rigged by officials so it does not show enthusiasm for unification.
- a mere 0.01% (69 out of 642 000 ballots) voted against annexation
- voting urns were kept separate
- armed soldiers outside = intimidation tactics
- Kept a list of those who voted ‘no’ = further intimidation, swaying the votes.
- many ‘no’ votes were destroyed
- Sermons were given which preached the benefit of unification
Venetia after unification
Italy was bankrupt.
Sunk into economic decay with mass emigration into the new world.
Decline of the Church
The papacys loosening grip on temporarl power was inevitable, 1831 rev was imporant for the decline in papal power.
The actions of the papal troops prepared for the 1848 revs and the extinction of papal power.
The allocution marked the end of dreams of any moderates and others that the Pope would lead Italy.
Pius IX’s motives where to strenghten the papcys popularity and power (temporal and spiritual)
The syllabus of errors 1864 and the doctrine of papal infallibility 1870
It condemns a total of 80 propositions that the pope considered as errors or heresies.
8- All human reason is placed on a level with religion.
19- Church is the top power.
20- Cannot exercise authority without govt permission.
24- Church cannot use force.
73- Civil contract may exist between christians nd a real marriage.
80- Roman Pontiff ought to reconcile himself and come to terms with progress.
Doctrine of papal infallibility-
1870 Pius IX published the Doctrine of Papal infallibility which decreed that the Pope’s spiritual judgement on matters of faith and morals could not be challenged and he was the supreme judge of truth for the Church
why was the Doctrine of Papal Infallibility a problem for Italy?
three months after the Doctrine was published, the Pope excommunicated Victor Emmanuel and the entire Italian government in 1870. he also stated that any catholics who took part in Italian politics would be excommunicated. since the pope had told his followers that he could not be wrong, many Italians, who were devout Catholics, ceased to support their excommunicated leader
problematic situation in Rome
Needed to get rid of the French garrison so work of driving out foreigners was complete.
1870 war
Franco-prussain war.
Prussain leader used the conflict to stir up nationalist feeling and unify Germany.
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was crucial for Italian unification because it led France to withdraw its troops from Rome, allowing Italy to annex the city and make it its capital in 1871. This marked the final step in Italian unification, completing the Risorgimento movement.
20th sep 1870
Ve’s army entered rome and the papal army was defeated because the pope refused to give up temporal power.
After a plebiscite in October 1870, Rome was officially annexed to Italy and later became the capital city in 1871, completing the unification of Italy.
Final event in the journey for unification.
issues with rome
- Popes authority.
- French garrison protecting the pope.
- Attack on the universal church is an attack on the pope.
september convention 1864
The September Convention was a treaty, signed on 15 September 1864, between the Kingdom of Italy and the French Empire, under which: French Emperor Napoleon III would withdraw all French troops from Rome within two years.
The Battle of Mentana 1867
Fought between french troops and G’s volunteer army of 5 000 men, G’s troops tried to capture Rome but failed.
popes attitudes on unification
His role to condemn the new Italian state as he refused to acknowledge its legitimacy.
Divides t further by loyal to the pope vs loyal to nationalist state.
1870: Pope Pius IX - Doctrine > Papal Infallibility; spiritual judgement > faith + moral matters could not be challenged - supreme truth for Catholic Church
Rome became capital city - only had 44 acres > land, Patrimony > St. Peter’ - retired into palace, Vatican
Excommunicated V.E + entire Italian government
Determined - demonstrate continued spiritual importance - announced, any Catholics who took part in Italian politics/ worked for new state - excommunicated
Catholic Church was always the main unifying element w/ Italy - those who were liberal-minded but wished - keep their faith - divided
Old balanced relationship between Church + State no longer existed
Threatened - become bitter clash > personalities + values
Cold war between Church + State made Pope more hostile - Kingdom > Italy
Failures 1861-96 (mostly regarding the Mezzogiorno)
Social-
After unification, women found themselves as second class citizens; home (legally subject to her husband) + work (actively discouraged from joining new mutual-aid societies)
1862: only 10,000 > 100,000 m - members + paid half as much for same job + same hours
1870s: increasingly more worked in factories
E.g many made cigars; long hours + low pay - rows > workers, stools, warm conditions
Widespread TB, caused by overcrowding + unsanitary conditions for the poor - undernourished + no medical treatment - 1 affected, everyone would die
Factory records: 100s died
Almost every job turned w into illness/ deformity; catching a fever standing in dirty water/ death from malaria common, rice workers
Working in hazardous conditions seemed preferable e.g Piedmont, 36,000 worked in the silk industry - hands ruined by boiling water
A lot remained poverty stricken - was this the Risorgimento they dreamed about
Standards of living fell;
1868: unpopular ‘grist’ tax was revived - unfavourably towards peasants
Political-
Profound political instability - 29 changes > prime ministers over next 50 years
Root > issue = lack > stable party system
Competing + shifting interest groups/factions
Trasformismo: critics were bribed into gaining gov support + ignored country’s needs
Mass excluded from voting - no need - attend to their wishes + needs
X Positive; constitutional monarchy survived, there were no revolutions + extremists were kept out of power
X Allowed individuals - emerge; held power long enough - provide continuity + promote change + reform
X Depretis 1876-87 + Crispi 87-91 93-96; dominated period w/ important reforms + achievements;
X 1877: free + compulsory primary education introduced
X Schools + universities came under state control - provide unified system > education via peninsula
X 1880s: public health reforms
X 1882: voting age reduced from 25-21 - electorate rose from ½ mil - 2 mil
X 1883: hated ‘grist tax’ abolished - easier for poor - obtain bread
X Death penalty abolished
Economic-
Large numbers > Italians remained poor + many in the south suffered from malnutrition, disease + harsh working conditions
Government faced w/ serious social + economic problems - unite 2 opposing areas; prosperous semi-industrialised ‘advanced’ north + poor, agriculturally backwards ‘south’
Agricultural economic output was 55% in 1870.
Cavour: ‘to harmonise north w/ south is more difficult - fight Austria/ struggle w/ Rome’
Majority > Naples + Sicily - illiterate + lived in poverty, nearly starving
Gov lack > understanding - introduced higher taxation - cost > living rose + quality for peasants life fell
Lives complicated by new, difficult to understand legal systems + conscription took the young men needed to farm
Public opinion turned against Victor Emmanuel II + Piedmont, south
X Expansion; wheat production doubled, 21,000 KM > new roads, railways expanded + steel production increased
X Important irrigation improvements made + good deal > mechanisation, agriculture
X 1866: gov expenditure exceeded income by 60%
Robbed this from quizlet so hope it makes sense
Out of their control/ pre-exisiting 61-96
Incomplete economical developments.
Poor social and economic standards.
Growing agricultural competition with tthe USA.
Literary rate increase din the north and stagnated in the south.
Education weaker in comparison to the rest of europe, 80% of pop illiterate in 1870.
The govt was faced with..
Geographical,society and social problems.
Unite 2 diff areas and naples/sicily were illiterate and impovirished.
Increased taxes added further to the complications of the peasants.
The majority of the population…
In naples and sicily were illiterate and in deep poverty.
The govt also showed…
Lack of understanding.
Increased taxes= increased cost of living = complications for peasants.
Difficult legal system and conscription.
Many joined the mafia due to the govts incompetence.
Peasant families began…
migrating to find work, they found none and became the growing underclass.
Latifundia
Allowed Southern landowners to enclose land in their estate.
Common land
Land held by the people without land owners.
Mafia
Organised criminal gang.
Problem of the pope
The govt sought to appease the Pope as they recognised the strength of his authority internally and internationally, despite this, any attempts ended in failure and were rendered ineffective.
The Law of Guarantees 1871- wanted to grant the pope certain privileges and sep church and state; failed because the Pope rejected it, viewing it as a legitimization of the Italian state’s control over Rome. Pope Leo XIII “prisoner of the Vatican”- sentiment continues after Pius’ reign.
The Roman Question remained unresolved (V LONG TERM , NOT RESOLVED UNTIL 33 YRS AFTER PERIOD) , and the government struggled to undermine the Pope’s authority, which remained intact among many Italian Catholics, the Pope continued to reject the Italian state’s legitimacy).
Anticlerical laws (such as the law on Civil marriage 1871) and other measures often backfired by strengthening the Vatican’s hold on public sentiment, especially among the lower classes and in southern Italy.
Diplomatic (trying to reduce the Pope’s authority through European diplomacy which had been central to the Church) and military efforts to isolate the Vatican had limited success, as the Pope maintained strong moral and spiritual influence, especially with France.
Mezzogiornio
Southern italy.
Transformiso 1871 onwards (quick- change performance, isolated extremists after unification)
1876-896
Definition: the creation of a centrist coalition of government to eradicate political left & right and thus political discourse
Dominated by the power the Northern elites enjoy wielding, never any unity.
Chamber of deputies under PM control = no party system thus Italian ppls desires arent accounted for.
Constantly changing govt. - 28 govts from 1871 to 1892
Govt. was non-ideological, meaning that it had no coherent doctrine
Govt of the right was dominant until 1876 & introduced public order & expenditure policy
1876 - 87 dominant left & transformismo of Depretis
Refirms = compulsory primary education 1877, abolition of the Grist Tax ‘83
1887 - 96 - crispi reforms widen local suffrage 1889 by 2 million & councils could elect own mayors
Foreign policy 1871 onwards
1882- Secret agreement- Triple alliance with Germany and the Hapsberg empire and Hungary; defensive military strategy.
1885- Colonial expansion by the seizure of the Port of Massawa.
1890- Crispi jouned East African colonies with Eritrea.
1896- Battle of Adwa, italy is defeated by an african army. ( on another card)
Opposition and repression 1871 onwards
1874 -Bologna insurrection- Bakunin plotted, italian govt recieved advanced notice from peasents and arrested revolutionaries
1878-9- repression against anarchists.
1882- Italian workers’ party founded, dissolved in 1892, and transformed into the PSI.
1892- Socialist party (PSI) formed, modern which attracted 210,000 votes in the 1900 election.
Radicals and Republicans
Radicals
Mazzini flourised after 1871. Supported irredentism ( desire to have returned to a country a region that was considered apart of it).
Republicans
Garabaldi in 70s absorbed into left.
1890s- comprehensive political, institutional reform- regional autonomy, civil rights and social legislation.
Economic division 1871 onwards
Can be considered the greatest divide of Italy bc it originated the N/S divide and was never properly dealt with. Often govt. intervention exacerabted the economic divides, inhibiting true unification.
Capitalistic North vs the Feudal South
Latifundia & teh sale of church lands meant that local elites consolidated power whilst the South suffered due to the revoking of Common Land
1887 tariff worsened economic situation as Southern Wheat growers were the hardest hit, causing the decline of southern industry & only compounded by the reciprocal French tariffs which caused wine & oil production to fall
Agricultural rev
1873 - 1913 there was a 100% increase in wheat production
land reclamation focused more on gains for the North than the South, worsening Southern economic stagnation. (only 2300 ha of land given to south out of a possible 352000)
attempts at reform i.e. Sonnino’s attempt at creating alliterate south; porposals for tax reduction and agricultural credits were opposed w/ hostility by Southern govts.
Emigration
1879- 20,000 to the us.
Internal migration- milan grew, pop doubled.
17% of workers born outsidethe province.
Transatlantic migration- 70” south.
By 1896, Italy had lost 1.5 mil citizens to emigration- led to EC hardship in the South, humiliation to national pride by higlighting a lack of opportunity.
Language
Vast majority spoke in dialect.
Italian only spoken in Rome and parts of Tuscany.
Didint promote education. Illiterate excluded from suffrage.
70% in Calabria.
11% in piedmont.
Detatchment from regime
Catholics discouraged in participating in politics.
Low literacy rate.
3% spoke Italian.
The state seen as oppressive, unsympathetic and unrepresentative.
Opposed the war with france
How did the French revolution have an impact on Italian nationalism?
Nothern elites began to make constitutions- began to challenge the idea that Italy needed an absolute ruler, they could be unified.
It scared the absolute rulers, indictaing to people that things could change because they were not divine rulers.
The French ideas inspired Italian elites, who gained knowledge of liberalism and nationalism.
Led to Napoleon’sinvasion.
How didn’t the French Revolution have an impact on Italian nationalism?
Majority of the population were unaware that the French Revolution was occuring,80% of the population were not gaining knowledge of a different way of governmentso nationalism did not develop.
Only the elites knew and there was nothing tangible about the revolution.
Long-term impacts of Napoleonic rule
Political ideologies are devloping, therefore knowledge is beginning to spreadand challenge previous leadership of absolutism.
Seeds of discontent sewn leading to challenge how things were.
Short term impacts of Napoleonic rule
Pope/ Church leadership reinstated, Church power returns to ‘Status Quo’
Different regions impose varying levels of pre-1789 systems of government.
Positive impacts for Italian nationalism
10,000s die for Napoleom/heavy taxation leads to the development of a common enemy- a common goal.
Police reforms, change of govt
The Troppau Protocol
Following Carbonari uprising in July 1820.
Austria, Prussia and Russia signed it offering to give assisstance to any European power threatened by revolution.
Brigands War 1861-64
Guerrilla warfare.
Began in 1860 after Garabaldi troops landed and overthrew the Kingdom of 2 Siciles.
350 groups, 20000-70000 deaths.
Kingdom of Italy sent up to 120000 soldiers.
The Unification and its Aftermath:
In 1860, the unification of Italy led to the annexation of Southern Italy (including the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) to the Kingdom of Italy.
Bourbon Reaction:
The deposed Bourbon monarchs and their supporters, who had been overthrown by Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand, resisted the new order, leading to a resurgence of brigandage (banditry) in the south.
The Brigands’ War:
Brigandage, which had been endemic in Southern Italy for centuries, intensified after the unification, with rebels engaging in raids, attacks on government officials, and acts of violence against those perceived as supporters of the new Italian state.
Pica Laws:
In 1863, the Italian government introduced the Pica Laws, which granted the military broad powers to suppress the brigandage, including martial law and the use of summary executions.
Suppression of the Rebellion:
The Italian army, backed by the Pica Laws, launched a brutal campaign to crush the brigandage, resulting in the deaths of many brigands and civilians.
End of the War:
By 1865, the brigandage had been largely suppressed, although pockets of resistance continued for some time
Garabaldi
Garabladis expedition to Sicily in 1860 forced Cav and Ve1 to send forces down to prevent him from marching on Rome.
His heroic rep and actions in 1860 led to unification but it was only possible bc of Piedmontese development and expansion and Napoleon III intervention
Problems of Italy 1789-1810
Political fragmentation.
Foreign disruptions.
Socio-economic disruptions.
Sicily 1848 revolution
12 January in Sicily, where the people began to demand a Provisional Government, separate from the government of the mainland. King Ferdinand II tried to resist these changes; however, a full-fledged revolt erupted in Sicily and a revolt also erupted in Salerno and Naples.easants invaded towns to dest.
Less imp- no long term impacts, did contribute to broader nationalist fervour. supressed by Bourbon rule
Battle of Adwa 1896
Taytu Betul
Forces:
Italy: ~17,000 troops (mostly colonial and conscript forces)
Ethiopia: ~100,000 warriors, well-armed and strategically positioned
Causes of the Battle
Treaty of Wuchale Dispute: Italy misinterpreted the treaty, claiming Ethiopia was its protectorate. Menelik II rejected this.
Colonial Ambitions: Italy sought to expand its African holdings after acquiring Eritrea.
Underestimation of Ethiopia: Italians believed the Ethiopian army was weak and poorly equipped.
Battle Summary
Italian Mistakes:
Poor logistics and supply lines left troops exhausted.
Divided forces made them vulnerable.
Misjudged Ethiopian strength and terrain.
Ethiopian Strategy:
Menelik II mobilized a massive, well-armed force.
Used superior numbers and knowledge of terrain.
Launched a well-coordinated attack, overwhelming Italian positions.
Outcome
Italian Defeat: 7,000+ killed, thousands more captured.
Ethiopian Victory: Secured Ethiopia’s independence.
Impact:
Political Crisis in Italy: The government collapsed.
End of Italian Colonial Ambitions (for a time).
Symbol of African Resistance: Inspired anti-colonial movements worldwide.
Significance
The Battle of Adwa remains one of the greatest African victories over a European power, proving that a non-European nation could successfully resist colonialism.
Mazzini
converted/influenced many including Garibaldi through his book that articulated nationalistic ideas.
organised propaganda campaign to influence Italians
President of Rome in ‘49
Mazzini less significant
ideas too intellectual & radical - doesn’t appeal/gain support of majority
absent from Italy for long periods of time - out of touch with the Italian situation
lacked contact with & understanding of peasantry
His book never reaches the masses bc maj of population (80%) were illiterate!!
His actual attempts at revolution via Young Italy i.e. uprisings in Piedmont were unsuccessful
Charles Albert
Whilst never motivated by nationalistic fervour, CA’s actions accelerated Italian unification in much more tangible ways than the likes of Mazzini.
- creation of statuto - tangible result of the 1848 revolutions
- introduced reforms i.e. the Corn Law ‘34 which made Piedmont the economic capital
- became more sig. due to VEII who kept Statuto
CA less significant in the build up to unification?
Only became more significant as a result of VEII’s action of keeping the Statuto which gave Italians the opportunity for an active pol. life e.g free press & elected assembly
- noone subscribed to ‘Italia fara da se’ bc defeated twice by Austria at Custozza for example.
1st episode 1920s- said he would lead Piedmont after the abdication of VE I, also Charles Albert’s absence permitted this to happen.
Triumph of Bourbon rule v Triumph of Austrian rule
The triumph of Austria in the North was more important than the triumph of Bourbon rule in the South during the 1848 revolutions. While the Bourbons successfully crushed liberal movements in Naples and Sicily, their actions were largely confined to the southern part of Italy and had limited influence on the broader national movement. In contrast, Austria’s victory over revolutionary forces in Lombardy and Venetia had far-reaching consequences. It halted the momentum of Italian unification, reaffirmed foreign dominance over the North, and exposed the lack of coordination among nationalist leaders. As the North was the main driving force behind unification efforts, Austria’s suppression of these revolts was a decisive blow to the hopes of a unified Italy in 1848.
Crispi
Effectiveness: Mixed, leaning ineffective in the long term
Strengths:
Modernizing ambitions: Crispi aimed to transform Italy into a strong modern state modeled after Bismarck’s Germany. He pursued administrative centralization, legal reform, and a stronger executive.
Foreign policy: Aggressively pushed for a more assertive Italian presence abroad, particularly in Africa.
Law and order: Cracked down hard on internal dissent and revolutionary movements, ensuring short-term domestic stability.
Weaknesses:
Authoritarianism: His methods were repressive—censorship, use of emergency powers, and police surveillance—leading to a democratic backslide.
Colonial disaster: The Battle of Adwa (1896) in Ethiopia was a catastrophic defeat, damaging Italy’s international prestige and Crispi’s career.
Economic mismanagement: Despite modernizing rhetoric, his tenure saw worsening public finances and limited industrial development.
Judgment: Crispi was effective in projecting strength and ambition but ultimately undermined Italian liberalism and left Italy diplomatically and militarily humiliated. His failure in Ethiopia was a major national trauma and overshadowed his domestic reforms.
Depretis
Strengths:
Transformismo: Depretis’s hallmark strategy of absorbing opposition into government created political stability and helped maintain unity in a deeply fragmented Italy.
Education reform: Introduced the Coppino Law (1877), making primary education compulsory and secular—an important step toward modernization.
Administrative reform: Took steps toward decentralizing certain aspects of governance and improving local administration.
Weaknesses:
Opportunism: His “Transformismo” was criticized for promoting corruption and political cynicism. It weakened ideological clarity and popular engagement in politics.
Limited social reform: He did little to address the North-South divide or poverty in the South (the “Southern Question”).
Military and foreign policy neglect: Often passive, lacking the ambition of contemporaries like Crispi.
Judgment: Depretis was a pragmatist who maintained political stability and initiated useful reforms, but at the cost of political idealism and popular participation. His government became symbolic of complacent, self-serving politics.
Maybe more successful n avoiding disaster but neither had long lasting impact
