Everything Flashcards
What were Charles Darwin’s four main observations in the Galapagos Islands
Variation
Inheritance
Superfecundity
Selection
Which one of Darwin’s observations states that not all creatures of a species are identical
Variation
Which one of Darwin’s observations states that some features of a species are passed down from generation to generation
Inheritance
Which one of Darwin’s observations states that the absence of limiting factors will lead a species to continue to reproduce
Superfecundity
Which one of Darwin’s observations states that not all members of a species will reach the stage of reproduction. Those who die before this stage will not have the ability to pass on their genetics
Selection
Which two individuals first described the theory of natural selection
Charles Darwin
Alfred Wallace
Which Darwin theory states that members of species choose mates based on heritable traits that facilitate reproductive success
Sexual selection
An offspring’s inherited alleles
Genotype
Observable expression of a genotype
Phenotype
In Mendelian Genetics, alleles can be _________ or _________
dominant; recessive
Which set of principles propose that each parent has:
two alleles
passes one of these alleles onto offspring
each allele can either be dominant or recessive
the possibility of passing on the allele to offspring is random
Mendelian Genetics
What objects did Gregory Mendel use to study heritability
Pea plants
In Mendel’s study which pea plant had two recessive alleles
Wrinkled pea plant
In Mendel’s study, which pea plant had two dominant alleles
Smooth pea plant
What tool did Mendel use to discover all possible allele combinations
Punnett Square
Do dominant alleles repress recessive alleles
No
What do nucleotide pairs cause when they do not match
Mutations
What kind of mutation occurs when there are changes in the nucleotide sequence of a gene
Point mutations
What kind of mutation do mutagens sometimes cause
Point mutations
What kind of mutation sometimes occurs when there are spontaneous errors of replication in DNA
Point mutations
Are mutations sometimes random and accidental (e.g., UV rays)
Yes
Mutations may ______ or ______ an individual’s ability to survive
help; harm
What does evolution favor
Reproducibility
Evolution is NOT ________
Intentional
What does natural selection reward positive mutations with
Reproducibility
How does natural selection get rid of mutations
By weeding out the genome
What kind of selection favors a shift in characteristic within a population
Directional selection
During the industrial revolution in England, trees became darker from soot. Lighter moths were originally the dominant phenotype; however, darker moths blended in better. Darker moths became the dominant phenotype. What kind of selection is this an example of
Directional selection
During the industrial revolution in England, trees became darker from soot. Lighter moths were originally the dominant phenotype; however, darker moths blended in better. Darker moths became the dominant phenotype. When the trees were no longer darker, the white moth population was restored. What kind of selection is this an example of
Stabilizing selection
Reduces variation of a characteristic within a population
Stabilizing selection
What kind of selection favors divergence of a characteristic within a population
Disruptive selection
What kind of evolution has geological and ecological features that may guide the evolution of different species toward the same traits
Convergent evolution
Regarding convergent evolution, what term is used to describe species with the same structure but with minute variations (specialization)
Homology
Regarding convergent evolution, what term is used to describe species with evolution based on common evolutionary ancestry
Homology
Regarding convergent evolution, what term is used to describe species with evolution towards a future
Analogy
Regarding convergent evolution, what term is used to describe species with evolution of a feature in distantly related species towards the same function
Homoplasy
The Linnaeus system of classification contains how many classifications
8
In the Linnaeus system of classification, a group of species that resemble each other is known as a
Genus
In the Linnaeus system of classification, a group of individuals that can breed with one another and produce offspring is known as a
Species
Is basic brain structure different in mammals and other vertebrates
No. Basic brain structure is the same for all mammals and other vertebrates
Regarding basic brain structure, what has been subject to evolutionary modifications
Relative sizes
Proportions
Locations
As evolutionary distance _______, similarities _______
Increase; decrease
Brain differences are usually ________
Quantitative (A matter of size)
Which one has the more complex central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
Vertebrates or nonvertebrates
Vertebrates
Bilateral brain symmetry and spinal cord structures
Segmentation of spinal cord
Hierarchical control
Separation of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
Functional specialization
These are all common to what kind of systems
All vertebrae nervous systems
3D Representation of cranial cavity
Endocasts
What can be used to compare/contrast modern-day species with extinct species
Endocasts
Which one bares a closer resemblance to ancestral species than other living species
Living species
Regarding simultaneous evolution, what have many species evolved with
Larger brains
Regarding simultaneous evolution, what part of the brain became smaller
Medulla
Regarding simultaneous evolution, what part of the brain maintained its relative size
Cerebellum
To allow a baby’s head to through the birth canal, cortical development happens when
After birth
Regarding simultaneous evolution, which part of the brain became proportionally large
Cortex
Relative to the size of the whole brain, what often predicts an animal’s specialized abilities
Size of CERTAIN brain regions
(e.g., Rats having larger olfactory region compared to humans)
What is the outer covering of the cerebral hemisphere that consists of cell bodies and dendritic branches
Six-layer cortex
What kind of correlation is there between brain and body weight
Strong positive correlation
What are two things are differences in brains among vertebrates based on
Relative size
Elaboration
Measure of brain size relative to body size/body weight
Encephalization factor
What happened to hominin brains during recent evolution
Hominin brain enlarged rapidly
What ability led to a reduction in jaw size and teeth size since their large sizes were no longer necessary
Ability to use tools
Regarding homo genus, what made and used tools but had small brains
Australopithecines
Homo erectus evolved with ______ brains and ______ faces
larger; smaller
Homo erectus were able to do four key things because of their larger brains
Make elaborate tools
Use fire
Hunt
Expand travel their travel over 3 continents
When homo sapiens arrived 300,000 years ago, what had happened to the homo erectus brain
It had reached modern levels
Long gestation time (Time spent in the womb)
Difficult birthing experience
High metabolic demand (More sodium-potassium pumps require more metabolic activity)
Complex genes (More mutation possibilities)
These are all ________ of large brains
Ramifications
What is an ovum that has been fertilized by a sperm cell
Zygote
What is a female gamete called
Ovum
What is a male gamete called
Sperm cell
During rapid cell division, what does the embryo develop into
Gastrula
What are the 3 distinct layers of the gastrula
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
Which layer (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) of the gastrula forms the skin and nervous system
Ectoderm
What are the subdivisions of the brain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Cerebral hemispheres
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
What subdivision of the brain do these areas occupy
Forebrain
Tectum
Tegmentum
Which subdivision of the brain do these areas occupy
Midbrain
Brainstem
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla
Which subdivision of the brain do these areas occupy
Hindbrain
Nature is decided by one’s _______
Genotype
What does nurture exert its influence over
Phenotypes
Are genotypes changeable
No
Monozygotic twins have _______ genotypes but can have _______ phenotypes
identical; different
How do cells communicate to coordinate differentiation
(e.g., whether a stem cell will become a neuron or a skin cell)
Cell-to-cell interactions
Any environmental influences that can disrupt cell-to-cell interactions resulting in neurodivergent development
Teratogens
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome affects what percentage of children born to alcoholic mothers
40%
In severe cases of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, what area of the brain does not develop
Corpus callosum
What is the most common problem with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Mental retardation
The severity of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is _______ related to the amount of alcohol consumed by the birth mother
directly
Aversion to social interaction
Underdeveloped communication skills
Repetitive behaviors/fixated interests
These are the 3 main deficits of which disorder
Autism spectrum disorder
Difficulty speaking
Difficulty understanding nonverbal cues
Repeating words or phrases often
These are all signs of which autism spectrum disorder deficit (aversion to social interaction, underdeveloped communication skills, repetitive behaviors/fixated interests)
Underdeveloped communication skills
When do symptoms of autism spectrum disorder first appear
In the first 2 years of life
Is autism considered a spectrum disorder
Yes
ASD Level 1
ASD Level 2
ASD Level 3
These are the severity levels for which disorder
Autism spectrum disorder
Regarding autism spectrum disorder, which severity level requires the most support
ASD Level 3
What is the ratio for boys having autism spectrum disorder
1 in 38 boys
What is the ratio for girls having autism spectrum disorder
1 in 152 girls
Which disorder has a strong case of heritability
Autism Spectrum Disorder
What is the heritability estimate range for dizygotic twins having autism spectrum disorder
5-10%
What is the heritability estimate range for monozygotic twins having autism spectrum disorder
60-90%
Phenylketonuria is a _______ hereditary disorder
recessive
Phenylketonuria affects how many births
1 in 10,000 births
How many individuals have one recessive allele for pheylketonuria
1 in 100 individuals
Phenylketonuria leads to a defective enzyme that ordinarily metabolizes _______
Phenylalanine
What are the main dangers of phenylalanine buildup
Toxic
Eventual intellectual disability
What are the 6 stages of neuronal development
Neurogenesis
Cell migration
Differentiation
Synaptogenesis
Neuronal cell death
Synapse rearrangement
What happens during neurogenesis
New neurons are created from undifferentiated cells via mitosis. Remaining undifferentiated cells migrate to the marginal zone where some cells become nerve cells. Others return to the ventricular zone for further mitosis
During neurogenesis, undifferentiated cells form a layer of cells lining the cerebral ventricles known as the ______
Ventricular zone
What happens during cell migration
Cells that leave the ventricular zone travel to their final destination
During cell migration, what type of cells act as scaffolding for cells to climb and migrate
Radial glial cells
What type of molecules guide migrating neurons and axons through cell-to-cell interactions
Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
What happens during differentiation
Undifferentiated cells become specialized for function (differentiated) depending on their local environment. Neighboring neurons can release proteins to direct cell specialization.
(e.g., students who are undeclared majors in college, decide to become music majors)
How are Sonic the Hedgehog proteins examples of differentiation
Sonic the Hedgehog proteins are released by the notochord to signal cells to become motor neurons
During differentiation, lost or damaged cells can be replaced by what process
Regulation (Cells are removed and replaced with healthy ones)
What happens during synaptogenesis
New synapses are created, growth cones adhere to axons and dendrites, filopodia extend from growth cones to adhere to CAMs, and axons are guided by chemicals released by target cells
Regarding synaptogenesis, what are chemical signals that attract certain growth cones
Chemoattractants
Regarding synaptogenesis, what are chemical signals that repel growth cones
Chemorepellents
Humans are born with most of the ______ they’ll ever have
Neurons
In what region of the brain does adult neurogenesis occur
Hippocampus
How can adult neurogenesis be boosted
By exercising
What can harm adult neurogenesis
Stress
What happens during neuronal cell death
Excess neurons die off via apoptosis
Regarding neuronal cell death, what process is known as programmed cell death
Apoptosis
What are the steps for apoptosis
1) CA2+ influx causes mitochondria to release the Diablo protein
2) Diablo protein binds to apoptosis inhibitors (IAPs)
3) Without IAPs, caspases can now disable the cell
How is apoptosis regulated
Through cell-to-cell interactions
What happens during synaptic pruning
Synapses formed during early development are retracted or reorganized
What does the net loss of synapses in late childhood/adolescence cause
Thinning of grey matter in the cortex
During synapse rearrangement, what direction does thinning happen
Thinning will happen from caudal to rostral direction
During synaptic rearrangement, which region of the brain matures last
Prefrontal cortex
What syndrome occurs when the body cannot perform normal elimination of synapses after birth
Fragile X syndrome
What does Fragile X lead to
Mental impairment
In Fragile X syndrome, what is excessively repeated
Trinucleotide sequences
Which sex is Fragile X more common in
Males
With Fragile X syndrome, why are defects in X chromosomes more likely to impact males
There is no additional X chromosome to compensate
Long face
Large ears
Prominent jaw
Autism
ADHD
Prader-Willi syndrome
These are all characteristics of what syndrome
Fragile X syndrome
What is necessary in early life for normal development
Proper stimulation
Lack of _____ cannot be made up later in life
Stimulation
What happened to kittens that were used in the binocular deprivation experiment
Their eyes were sewn shut. The developed blindness over time
What is eventually caused by lack of light received by both eyes
Binocular deprivation
What happens after binocular deprivation occurs
Loss of dendritic spines
Reduction in visual cortex synapses
What is the study of factors that affect gene expression
Epigenetics
What is the biochemical process of adding methyl groups to DNA molecules to usually repress transcription
Methylation
Low maternal licking and grooming leads to high stress hormones levels and high anxiety
High maternal licking and grooming leads to low stress hormone levels and low anxiety
What is this an example of
Methylation
What syndrome is caused by a mutation that disables the MeCP2 gene and disrupts brain/body development
Rett syndrome
What determines the severity of Rett syndrome in an individual
Health of the microglia
Replacing damaged _______ has shown improvements in mice impacted with Rett syndrome
Microglia
Shrinkage of what brain region is correlated with memory impairment during aging
Hippoccampus
What brain region acts as a transfer station for memory
Hippocampus (STM => LTM)
Are long term memories stored in the hippocampus
No
The ability to form new memories ______; however, existing long term memories remain _______
declines; intact
What form of dementia may appear in middle age but is more apparent in elderly individuals
Alzheimer’s disease
Senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are the two biological markers for what disease
Alzheimer’s disease
Which biological marker for Alzheimer’s is formed by Beta-amyloid accumulation and impairs synaptic function
Senile plaques
Which biological marker for Alzheimer’s is caused by abnormal clusters of neurofilaments and the Tau protein
Neurofibrillary tangles
With Alzheimer’s disease, what is correlated with the number of neurofibrillary tangles
Degree of cognitive impairment
What does neurotoxicity of cholinergic proteins in the basal forebrain halt
Acetylcholine production
What does halting acetylcholine production lead to
Alzheimer’s disease
Simple, unvarying, and instinctive responses to sensory stimuli
Reflexes
Complex set of commands to muscles that is established before a behavior starts
Motor plan
Are motor plans predetermined
Yes
What do closed-loop control mechanisms maximize
Accuracy
In closed-loop control mechanisms, what happens to information attained from the subject being controlled
The information flows back to the device controlling it
What are the 3 components involved in closed-loop control mechanisms
Error detectors
Controllers
Transducers
In closed-loop control mechanisms, what component (error detector, controller, transducer) acts as a perceptual system that identifies deviation from the motor plan
Error detector
In closed-loop control mechanisms, what component (error detector, controller, transducer) works with muscles that correct the detected discrepancies
Controller
In closed-loop control mechanisms, what component (error detector, controller, transducer) acts as a sensory system that provides sensory data input to the error detector
Transducer
An example of a closed-loop control mechanism is threading a needle. The position of fingers holding the thread is the control signal. Match the next steps with their corresponding component
1) Perceiving the discrepancy between the position of the thread and the position of the needle
2) Controlling the thread and holding the needle with the muscles in your finger
3) Looking at the positions of the thread and needle (Visual system [hint: sensory system])
Error detector
Controller
Transducer
In closed-loop control mechanisms, how long does stimulus-response adjustment take
At least 1/5th of a second
The ability to enable precise controls
The ability to allow for execution of new movements
These are advantages of what control mechanism
Closed-loop control mechanism
Slow
Cognitively demanding
These are disadvantages of what control mechanism
Closed-loop control mechanism
What do open-loop control mechanisms maximize
Speed
Fast
Little to no cognitive demand
These are advantages of what control mechanism
Open-loop control mechanism
If motor program contains error, they errors will still be executed in their movement
Overcoming errors requires extensive practice
Novel situations cannot be adapted to
These are disadvantages of what control mechanism
Open-loop control mechanism
Which control mechanism is required for ballistic movements
Open-loop control mechanism
Which body part controls skeletal muscles
Spinal cord
Which brain regions are responsible for modulating activities of control systems
Cerebellum and basal ganglia
Which joints allow movements in all angular motions
Ellipsoid joints
Which joints allow movements on all three planes
Ball and socket joints
Which joints allow movements on a single plane
Hinge joints
What connects bones to skeletal muscles
Tendons
What are muscles that oppose each other called
Antagonistic muscles
Principle muscles (prime mover) involved in a movement are called ________
(e.g., when lifting a dumbell, the bicep acts as this kind of muscle)
Agonist muscles
What muscles provide support to agonist muscles
Synergistic muscles
Where do motor neurons originate from
Motor neurons originate from muscle fibers on the spine synapse
What forms the neuromuscular junction
Motor neurons
Muscle fibers contain which two common overlapping filaments
Thick filaments
Thin filaments
What are thick muscle fiber filaments made of
Myosin
What are thin muscle fiber filaments made of
Actin
During muscle contractions, heads of ______ filaments bind to ______ and ______ inward to shorten ______ length
myosin; actin; muscle
What are two types of muscle fibers
Slow-twitch muscle fibers
Fast fatigue-resistant muscle fibers
Regarding slow-twitch fibers, how long does it take to reach maximal contraction
100-200ms
Regarding fast-twitch fibers, how long does it take to reach maximal contraction
50-80ms
Which fast-twitch fibers contract rapidly, fatigue quickly, and are useful for dangerous situations
Type 2B
What do motor neurons and all muscle fibers innervated by them form
Motor units
What ratio expresses the number of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor neuron
Innervation ratio
Motor neurons branch off to many terminals called ______
Collaterals
In the neuromuscular junction, action potentials cause the release of what chemical
Acetylcholine
What toxin blocks acetylcholine receptors
Bungarotoxin
What autoimmune disorder causes the body to develop acetylcholine receptors
Myesthenia gravis
What is an individual’s sense of body position and muscle use alled
Proprioception
What is the process for a stretch reflex
1) Weight added
2) Muscle becomes stretched
3) Muscle spindle afferents become excited
4) Spindle afferents excite motor neurons
5) One muscle is stimulated to oppose the muscle stretch
6) An antagonistic muscle is inhibited to relax
Do central pattern generators classify as reflexes
No because they do not require sensory input
What type of CPG does walking involve
Half-center oscillation type CPG
What does polio do to motor neurons of the spinal cord
Destroys them
What nerves provide motor commands for muscles above the spinal cord
Cranial nerves
Where does input to basal ganglia originate
Cortices; Usually the prefrontal cortex
What disease is caused by the loss of dopaminergic cells of the substantia nigra
Parkinson’s disease
Regarding Parkinson’s disease, the loss of disinhibition leads to excessive activation of the _______
Thalamus
What are species-specific behaviors that signify a willingness and motivation to reproduce
Preceptive behaviors
Chemical signals that communicate between animals of the same species
Pheremones
Which organ has specialized receptors
Vomeronasal organ
What is involved in eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors
Ventromedial hypothalamus
What is secreted by fat cells that signals current long-term energy stores
Leptin
Too much solute in the extracellular compartment
Osmotic thirst
Low fluid waters in the extracellular compartment due to obligatory losses
Hypovolemic thirst
Without salt, what would the osmotic pressure of water do to cells
Osmotic pressure would drive into cells and cause them to rupture
What is the principal sugar used for energy called
Glucose
Complex carbohydrate made of glucose and stored short term in the liver and muscles
Glycogen
Increased secretion of angiotensin II triggers the release of what two chemicals
Aldosterone and vassopressin
When kidneys release renin into the bloodstream, it increases secretion of what chemical
Angiotensin II
What is the conversion of glucose to glycogen called
Glycogenesis
The body can use what two things as energy stores
Glucose
Fatty acids
The brain can only use one thing for energy stores
Glucose
What can the brain use glucose without
Insulin
The body cannot use glucose without _______
Insulin
What occurs if food deprivation is prolonged
Glucogenesis
What process converts fats and proteins into glucose and ketones
Glucogenesis
What is the process of heat production, maintenance of membrane potentials, and all other basic life-sustaining processes called
Basal metabolism
What percentage of energy in food is lost during digestion to excretion or indigestable materials
33%
What percentage of energy in food is used for basal metabolism
55%
at percentage of energy in food is used for the behavioral process
12%
What are the two regions that possibly control hunger and satiety
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus
What two sets of neurons does the arcuate appetite system rely on
POMC neurons
NPY neurons
What system acts as the brain’s reward system
Limbic system
Dopamine-mediated reward system in what brain region facilitates the pleasurable effects of eating
Nucleus accumbens
Vassopressin secretion sent to the kidneys will reduce the amount of what lost through obligatory loss
Salt
Detection of low blood pressure triggers the heart to stop secreting what peptide
Atrial natriuretic peptide
What is the number of solute particles per volume of solvent called
Osmolality
What are mammals with normal osmolality called
Isotonic
What is the normal mammalian salt concentration in the extracellular compartment
0.9%
What are solutions with osmolality greater than 0.9% called
Hypotonic
What are solutions with osmolality less than 0.9% called
Hypertonic
What are the channels in the membrane that move liquid into and out of the membrane called
Aquaporins
The best set zone for an organism depends on the current physiological demands
Allostasis
What is a chronic deviation from the set zone called
Allostatic load
Unnecessary loss of necessary needs
Obligatory losses
Relatively stable, balanced internal environment optimized for cellular activities
Homeostasis
What blocks estrogen from entering the brain
A-fetoprotein
Conversion of androgens into estrogens in the brain by aromatase leads to the masculinization of the brain
Aromatization hypothesis
Circulation of _____ leads to increases in male sexual behaviors
Testosterone
Female sexual behaviors increase as ______ approaches
Ovulation
Which system consists of the basal ganglia
Extrapyramidal system
What two pathways does the basal ganglia contain
Direct pathway
Indirect pathway
Regarding basal ganglia pathways, which pathway (direct, indirect) initiates and maintains movement
Direct pathway
Regarding basal ganglia pathways, which pathway (direct, indirect) terminates and suppresses movement
Indirect pathway
Where does the cortex send excitatory glutamatergic inputs
Striatum
