Everything Flashcards
What is a p value?
Calculated probability of observing an effect size as large or larger than the one observed between the groups, if there was no actual difference between the groups
How is qualitative research carried out?
Interviews Participant observations Focus groups Textual analysis Action research
What are the key terms in qualitative research?
Interpretation
Reality
Truth
Generalisation
What is quantitative research?
Numbers, Testing a theory Objectivity Large sample size Generalisable narratives
What does quantitative research give you?
Clear answers to specific causal questions
What is qualitative research?
Meanings Social life Generating theory Subjectivity Small sample size
what does qualitative research leave you with?
Applicability within context
What are the cons of qualitative research?
Researcher presence and bias
Time consuming
Lack of generalisability
Poor replication and validity
What happens in an observational study?
No intervention
Record behaviours, attitudes and symptoms
What is a cohort study?
Group of subjects followed over time
Done to find the incidence and investigating potential causes of condition
Are cohort studies prospective or retrospective?
Either
What is an experimental study?
Researcher controls or introduces factor
Record effects of intervention on outcomes
What is a parallel study?
Treatment vs placebo
What is a crossover study?
Use the same two groups and do a period when they are the placebo (and then a wash out period) and then a period when they are the active treatment group
What are the phases of a preclinical trial?
Preclinical
Clinical (phase 1-3)
Post clinical
What happens in the preclinical phase?
Lab tests
Research protocol
Non-human testing
What happens in a phase 1 trial?
Small group (20-100 healthy patients) Dose finding
What happens in a phase 2 trial?
Large group (100-1000s) Testing of beneficial and undesirable effects
What happens in a phase 3 trial?
1000+
Compare with standard therapy
Multiple worldwide locations
What happens in a post clinical trial?
Analyse data and write a paper
Follow up
New therapy shown to be safe and effective, approved by medical authorities and continuing testing
What are the different parties in a clinical trial?
Patients Clinicians Institutions where trials are held Research ethics committees or the institutional ethical committee Sponsor Regulatory authorities
What is the step by step of running a clinical trial?
Recruitment Screening Informed consent after patient information sheet Blinding Protocol visits step by step procedures Reports of adverse effects Store investigates product Subject compensation Electronic data collection Study closure
What are the two main cases that have influenced human research protections?
Public Health Service syphilis study
Nuremberg (nazi doctors/ww2 scientists)
What does the Nuremberg code state?
Need for informed consent
Research should be based on prior animal work
Risks should be justified by anticipated banality
Only qualified scientists must conduct research
Physical and mental suffering should be avoided
No research where death/severe injury is expected
What are the two methods of sampling?
Simple random
Convenience
What are the pros/cons of simple random sampling?
Every member has an equal probability of selection
Representative sample
Not particularly feasible or cost effective though
What are the pros/cons of convenience sampling?
Participants convenient to access
Sample not particularly representative and you may get selection bias or volunteer bias
What are the different types of variables?
Categorical
Continuous
What is categorical data?
Variables with options that don’t have a predictable quantitative relationship between them
What is continuous data?
Variables measured on a quantitative scale
What are the types of bias?
Response bias
Assessor bias
What is response bias?
Difference between response and truth
Particular issue if you are self reporting issues
What is assessor bias?
Systematic difference between assessor measurement of participant and truth
What is the 95% central reference range for numerical data with normal distribution?
A measure of the spread of the continuous numerical data
What is the unpaired t test used for?
Analysing parametric data from independent samples
What is parametric data?
Data that you’ve assumed normal bias for
What is the paired t test used for?
Paired parametric data
What does the one tailed test do?
Only care about significance in one direction and will talk about significantly greater then or significantly less than
What does the two tailed test do?
Care about significance in both directions and talk about significant difference
What does ANOVA stand for?
ANalysis Of VAriance
What is ANOVA?
Standard approach for statistical analysis of studies involving multiple comparison
What does ANOVA assume?
Data is parametric and unpaired
What is a one way ANOVA used for?
Studies with 3 or more varying conditions on a single continuous variable
What is a two way ANOVA used for?
Studies where there is an interaction between two categorical variables on a single categorical variable
When are post tests used?
If ANVOA is significant
What are the types of categorical data analysis?
McNemars test
Fishers exact test
Pearsons chi-squared test
What is McNemars test appropriate for?
Analysing continuous data involving paired data that can be shown in a 2x2 contingency table
What is a fishers exact test?
Analyses categorical data involving unpaired data that conform to a 2x2 contingency table and a small number of samples
What does Pearsons chi-squared test analyse?
Categorical data involving unpaired data that cant be measured with fishers test
When cant you use Pearsons chi-squared test?
If any cell contains zero
What is a population?
Entire group of people
What is a sample?
Little group of the population
How can you work out they 95% confidence interval for a single mean?
Mean +/- 2 standard errors
What is the 95% confidence interval a measure of?
Precision
How do you work out relative risk?
Risk in group 1/risk in group 2
How do you work out risk difference?
Risk in group 1 - risk in group 2
What is the four principles approach in ethics?
Non-male Vicente
Beneficence
Autonomy
Justice
What is civil law?
Dealings between private individuals or groups
Rights and duties owed by individuals and groups to each other
Legal action taken by claimants
What is criminal law?
Matters serious enough to be considered offences against the whole community
Rights, duties and norms important for the whole community
Legal action taken by the crown prosecution service
What is statute law?
Written law decided by legislature or another government agency
Relatively difficult to change
