European states (Italy): To what extent had Mussolini established a totalitarian state before the outbreak of WW2? Flashcards
Intro/thesis
-Overall had only established a totalitarian state to a limited extent. Yes, he had support and had established a cult of personality. However, this was very superficial, this support was often wavering, and he had to compromise and share power with other groups.
Paragraphs (maybe put paragraph about ability to suppress opposition last?)
-Popularity was limited
-Mussolini was mainly able to suppress and deter potential opposition
-Decision-making power and influence over policies was limited
Popularity - examples
-Mussolini never really changed Italian attitudes. He tried to break ‘bourgeois thinking’ in Italian society and promote ‘fascisization’ by, for example, making it compulsory in 1937 to replace the traditional greeting of a handshake with a Fascist salute. However, his dictates were met with apathy and irritation.
-Fascist newspapers never achieved more than 10% of total circulation.
-Some estimates have suggested that only 15% of the civil service was Fascist in 1927. Although the number of Fascist Party members increased in the 1930s, as people became aware that this was the only way to get promoted, the reality was that there was no Fascist revolution in government.
Popularity- explanation & historiography
-Mussolini maintained popular support by promoting a cult of personality, but his critics believe that his regime lacked substance. Those traditionally involved in government institutions joined the fascist Party to secure their careers and gain promotion.
-Bosworth: support for the regime was very limited and that pro-Fascst and pro-Mussolini public displays were essentially engineered by the oppressive state.
Mainly able to suppress & deter opposition- examples
-Mussolini ensured the support of political journalists who could have normally championed the opposition by offering them pay incentives and grants. For academics, any criticism of the state would immediately lead to the removal of all benefits.
-It is estimated that by 1926, Fascist squads had killed around 2,000 people. The regime’s secret police, the OVRA, tracked possible dissidents and had the support of thousands of informers.
-Prison camps were set up on islands and held up to 5,000 political prisoners.
Opposition- explanation
-However, this opposition was limited from the start of his regime. Nevertheless, important incidents like the Matteotti crisis proved a significant warning to potential dissidents.
-This view is supported by Denis Mack Smith, who argues that violence was a key aspect of Mussolini’s consolidation of power, citing the murder of Matteotti as an example of this.
Opposition- counterargument
-The limited opposition was also partly due to the lack of cohesion among opponents (not Mussolini’s power). The Communists, for example, refused to work with any other group.
-Even though there was limited opposition to Mussolini, as the secret police tracked possible dissidents and Mussolini bribed journalists and academics, the Communists maintained an underground resistance with 7,000 activists.
Decision-making power & influence over policies- examples
-Having gained extraordinary powers in parliament, Mussolini moved to consolidate his control over the Fascist Party by establishing the Grand Council of Fascism.
-However, Mussolini had had to compromise to consolidate his power. He found agreement with the Church that retained its influence on Italy; he allowed the industrialists their autonomy and profits, and Italy remained a monarchy where the King could dismiss Mussolini.
-Furthermore, his minister for justice, Alfredo Rocco, produced most of the laws between that created the Fascist state.
Decision-making power & influence over policies- explanation
-These compromises demonstrate that Mussolini did not establish a fully totalitarian state and he had much less power than he aimed to (and when compared with other authoritarian leaders).
-Denis Mack Smith argues that Mussolini did not have totalitarian power, as even his own ministers flatly disobeyed his orders.
