Ethnic Killing and Genocide Flashcards
1
Q
What was the old historiographical division with regards to Holocaust and Genocide?
A
Perpetrator/Bystander/Victim
2
Q
Why is the division between perpetrator/bystander/victim no longer sound?
A
Recent analysis and discovery of how the Holocaust played out in Eastern Europe has shown that the traditional perpetrator/bystander/victim categorisation isn’t that helpful and those traditionally viewed as bystanders are actually something more complicated
3
Q
What analytic categories have been proven to have outlived their usefulness due to recent studies of the Holocaust which have shifted the spotlight from Germans to Poles, Ukrainians, Russians, Lithuanians, and other ethnicities?
A
Perpetrator/victim/bystander
Collaboration/resistance
4
Q
What has contributed to the shift of scholarly attention from Germany to Eastern Europe?
A
The opening of Soviet archives and a globalised commemorative culture centred on the Holocaust
5
Q
Why did scholars studying Eastern Europe increasingly criticise the categories of perpetrators/victims/bystanders particularly bystanders?
A
for their inability to consider specific levels of opposition to or approval of the Nazi regime
6
Q
What did Hilberg and Marrus define bystanders as encompassing? (now we are against this)
A
encompasses all those ‘contemporaries of the Jewish catastrophe’ who ‘saw or heard something of the event’.
7
Q
What does perpetrator/bystander/victim and resistance/collaboration as analytical tools not help us as historians consider?
A
A wider range of social groups and behaviours outside the political sphere
8
Q
What does Burzlaff argue the fallacious compulsion to judge behaviours and antisemitism as a universal explanation has done?
A
Limited our efforts to understand the web of social relations in the Holocaust
9
Q
What criteria does Burzlaff suggest reading the available literature on the East European borderlands through that stress the transnational and may be productively incorporated into broader perspectives on modern genocide and mass violence? (4)
A
1) the importance of pre-war politics
2) the multiplicity of social groups involved
3) a multi-dimensional perspective
4) spatial and gender views
10
Q
Why does Burzlaff argue comparing is not trivialising?
A
Because entangled histories will even further underline the holocaust’s particularities
11
Q
What did early holocaust scholarship centre on (moved past this)? (3)
A
- Weight of antisemitism in German society
- Prussian militarism
- the failed modernisation of the German bourgeoisie
12
Q
What do Historians now tend to reflect to explain the destruction of social relations in wartime Eastern Europe?
A
the Soviet occupation that began with the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact (23 August 1939) which divided Eastern Europe between Berlin and Moscow
13
Q
How does Estonia provide an example for the importance of pre-war politics? (2)
A
- Bitter memories of the Russian empire combined w a sense of nationalism from which Jews were increasingly excluded
- Weiss-Wendt “political promiscuity” left Estonians longing for a national state, which led them to join forces with the Nazi regime
14
Q
What happened in the aftermath of WWI in eastern Galicia? (2)
A
- hostility towards Jews intensified
- feelings of belonging to a specific ethnic group significantly increased w foundation of nationalist parties
15
Q
What does Barbatov trace for eastern Galician town of Buczacz?
A
- ethnic conflicts back to the violent demise of the Habsburg empire
16
Q
How did Soviet rule have implications for Holocaust? (5)
A
- Left each ethnic group suffering
- Traumatised the Estonians
- Polish nationalists believed jews had plotted with Stalin’s local henchmen
- Ukranian extreme nationalism formed in south-eastern Poland, targeting Soviets, Poles, and jews as obstacles to an ethnic state
- In Belarus the Soviet regime had already embarked on anti-Jewish policy, sharpening the general animosity towards the Jewish minority
17
Q
What is Timothy Synder’s analytic framework and argument?
A
- framework of a ‘double occupation’, first Soviet then Nazi, serving as a laboratory of escalating genocidal violence
18
Q
What is Synder’s framework more persuasive than?
A
The old stereotype that Jews were punished for their involvement with the Soviets
19
Q
What have case studies from eastern Galicia and Bialystok revealed, supporting Snyder’s framework over the old stereotype?
A
That the no of Jews in the Soviet administration was not higher than those from other groups
20
Q
What does Hanebrink argue the myth of Judea-Communism which replaced the obsession with blood libel between 1942-45 is best seen as? (2)
A
- A symbol of the overall culture of hatred
- the more the latter took root in public discourse, the lower the threshold for physical violence became
21
Q
How did attitudes towards Jews and other minorities differ from one region to another under Soviet occupation?
A
- Although Soviets were ethnically cleansing the Poles of eastern Galicia until July 1941, the asymmetric trio of Ukrainians, Jews, and Poles left the Poles more sympathetic to Jews in western Galicia
22
Q
Why does Burzlaff argue the will of the Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Baltic nationalist groups to participate in pogroms must be understood via the concept of a ‘National Revolution’ and Christian apocalyptic visions? (Example of German-uniformed battalion in Lwow) (3)
A
- June 1941: unsuccessful attempts to proclaim a Ukrainian state, and Lithuanian state 1 day apart
- Local nationalists turned their attention to ethnic cleansing and neighbour-on-neighbour violence
- Previously considered the pinnacle of Eastern European antisemitism
23
Q
How do Kopstein and Wittenberg explain the pogroms across eastern Soviet borderlands through pre-war behaviour? (extending Gross’ case study of Jewdwabne) (2)
A
- Argue pogroms happened in places where the perceived threat of Jewish political rights and the longing for an ethnically homogenous state were high
- if pogroms in c. 10% of all localities merely retaliation vs jewish-Soviet collaboration, once the Party officials had left, other ‘collaborators’ besides Jews would also have been targeted
24
Q
What does Kopstein and Wittenber’s analysis contradict?
A
- Recent findings that every pogrom had a unique scenario
25
What does Finkel in history of the ghettos of Minsk, Krakow and Bialystok develop? (2)
- a typology of jewish reactions to Nazi policy by delineating the vast range of stances between "collaboration: and "armed resistance"
- Adds "cooperation", "compliance", "coping", and "evasion" to our tools for understanding "victim" behaviour
26
What does Finkel argue in his study of the ghettos of Minsk, Krakow, and Bialystok? (2)
- That Jewish communities with pre-war experiences of discrimination and violence were more likely to resist and escape from ghettoes
- everyone had to make choices, often reflecting pre-war habits, at every stage of one's involvement - or not - alongside the Nazis and the war, inseparable from the Holocaust
27
What does Browning's study demonstrate?
- that the Order Police Reserve Battalion 101, comprising middle-aged men from Hamburg, killed c. 83k Jews bc of peer pressure, feelings of duty, obedience to authority, and brutalising circumstances
28
What does Lower's study of German women in occupied territories show?
- at least 500k women became witnesses and accomplices, sometimes murdering Jews on their own
29
What does Lower argue motivated these German women? (5)
- motivated by a sense of adventure, careerism, romance, upward social
mobility, and independence from oppressive family authority back home
30
What does Lower call this generation of German women?
WWI Baby boomers
31
What does Lower say these women often did?
often engaged in intimate relationships with future victims, such as Jewish hairdressers
in Warsaw’s police department.
32
What does Jan Gross' estimate ?
c. 1-1.5 million Jews died at the hands of non-Germans in Nazi-dominated Europe
33
Evidence of local henchman paritcipating in the search, robbing, and killing of Jews and that local police carried out Nazi orders in Eastern Europe (3)
- Polish 'Blue' Police - widespread participation in Nazi terror
- 20k men at its peak in late 1943
- Undertook mass executions and liquidated ghettos
34
How were the Trawinki men a heterogenous group?
- Originally mainly Soviet POWs
- later came to include Ukrainian and Polish civilians and sometimes ethnic Germans
- c. 4k-5k men
35
What did the Trawinki men do?
served as guards of deportations trains, and in death camps of Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka
36
What does Jan Grabowski's work on a county in South-East Poland argue? (2)
- Emphasises extent to which m-c farmers, along w Blue Police, handed Jews over to the Nazis for material rewards, out of fear, or bc of antisemitic attitudes
- Usually those who began as helpers betrayed the victims after had exhausted their financial means, or at times sexually abused them
37
Why did east European auxiliaries participate in the killings of Jews? (5)
- hopes of securing favourable treatment for their communities
- liberation from the Soviet yoke
- for their own survival
- for entertainment
- ideology, opportunism, and inertia all played a role
38
Why did Soviet party members put themselves at the service of the Nazis?
because the authorities labelled anyone behind their lines a 'collaborator'
39
What have historians exploring former Soviet party members found out about Ukrainian nationalists' fascism?
- Ukrainian nationalists embraced a form of fascism that valued antisemitism,
national independence, and the indiscriminate use of violence and racism towards ther groups
40
Why does a mere focus on Jews not account for genocidal violence in Volhynia and Ukrainian nationalism?
- peasants participation in mass murder of Jews in western Ukraine and Belarus foretold the ethnic cleansing of up to 60k Volhynian Poles in 1943
41
What do Desbois and others now call the 'Holocaust by bullets'?
- The mass shootings of 2.8 million Jews over pits across Eastern Europe
42
Who were 'ethnic Germans'? (3)
- 70k former polish citizens who were to replace local groups as warriors-farmers
- contributed to the forcible acquisition of Jewish goods
- among those thousands who bought and managed Jewish property across Nazi-occupied Europe
43
What are the best-documented cases of the Ethnic German-type of complicity in the Nazi genocide?
- Hamburg
| - Vichy France
44
What does Martin Dean say was a 'social dynamic of the Holocaust'?
The pauperisation of Jews and their expropriation
45
What does Burzlaff argue social history needs to show, in line with Johnson's reflections on historians of Afro-American slaves?
- Needs to show more how Jews and other victim groups strove to preserve their humanity
46
What two points do recent studies on Stalinist society at war highlight?
1) the Nazis' dependence on locals partly restored their self-determination
2) the lived experiences of 'ordinary' Soviet citizens prompt us to consider their inner worlds when the Germans, often seen as liberators arrived
47
What is evidence to support the point highlighted by recent studies of Stalinist society at war that the Nazis, dependence on locals partly restored their self-determination? (2)
- Russian administrators had a surprising degree of freedom in their everyday lives as long as they executed Nazi orders.
- For many rural Russian populations in the north-west, the Nazi occupation even
improved their living standards after the dissolution of the much-hated collective
farms and the revival of the Orthodox church.
48
What does Masha Cerovic show? (2)
- no formal category of ‘collaborator’ existed for Russian partisans in Belarus
- need for a subtler understanding of people's capacity to make sense of their environment, negotiating rather than internalising the regime's values
49
How did some Jewish people's involvement with the Holocaust in Poland complicate and proves the bystander/victim/perpetrator framework and collaboration/resistance is unhelpful? (3)
- Jewish informers worked for the Gestapo in Krakow
- Prostitution for survival was common practice in the Warsaw ghetto
- Grief and black despair pushed parents to kill their children
50
What does Zoe Waxman's feminist history of the holocaust reveal? (3)
- Gender mattered for social relations
- hardships specific to Jewish women
- They were targeted in their role as mothers and were the victims of sexual violence in ghettos, hiding, concentration camps, and displaced persons camps
51
What does the omnipresence of sexual violence in genocide invite us to rethink?
- the connection between masculinity, war, and queer experiences
52
What does Ulrich Herbert criticise?
Critcises the misguided tendency to seek explanations for the involvement of non-Jewish Germans/non-Jews living under occupied territories in the Final Solution that will be emotionally satisfying
53
Why does Snyder argue in Bloodlands? (4)
- ECE area where Hitler’s vision of racial supremacy/Lebensraum met sometimes in conflict and sometimes in cooperation with Stalin’s vision of a communist ideology that resulted in deliberate starvation, imprisonment, and murder of innocent people in gulags and elsewhere
- Says they collaborated in the killings of Poles such as Nazi crimes vs ethnic Poles and Soviet repressions of Polish citizens
- Aided each other until 1941 - joint occupation of Poland 1039-41
- Even post-German invasion of USSR Stalin chose not to aid rebels in Warsaw in 1944 during uprising and allowed the Germans to kill people who would later have resisted communist rule
54
Why does Snyder support argument we need to move our focus outside the camps? (2)
- so much of Holocaust/ethnic killing committed out in the open
- 2 million Jews killed in the Holocaust by bullets when USSR invaded, also rounded up Jews in synagogues and burnt them alive
55
What does Dean's study of collaboration and participation in Belorussia and Ukraine reveal about their involvement in killings?
A lot of the time local Ukrainian nationalists involved in killing Jews, but not as trigger pullers, so their situation/position in killing not as straightforwad as one might think
56
What does Gelattely note with regards to Holocaust in Nazi Germany and ordinary Germans? (4)
- Contemporary media published material about the police/concentration camps/various discriminatory campaigns and regime actively spread and celebrated this information in the press and publicly
- Effort by regime to rationalise their punishments of people to German public/presented it in terms of common good/German values
- Nazis celebrated police in week-long annual festivals across the country
- Presented in the media as ‘boot-camps’ where state confined political criminals and asocials to subject them to work therapy
57
What does Herbert argue was expected of German employees?
German employees of local savings banks could be expected to “lend a hand in cleaning out ghettos in Poland whenever there were insufficient policemen”
58
What does Herbert argue about German anti-semitism?
Nazis came to power in spite of, rather than because of, their anti-semitic beliefs
59
What supports Herbert's argument that the Nazis came to power in spite of, rather than because of, their anti-semitic beliefs?
Relatively few instances of physical violence vs Jews in early Weimar years, largely limited to a small group of radicals
60
How does Alison Owing's Frauen support the argument that many Germans deemed anti-semitism/Jewish suffering an "acceptable sacrifice" for the “positive” changes wrought by the Nazi Regime? (2)
- Middle-class woman, wife of a prominent German historian recalled “on the whole, everyone felt well” and “wanted only to see the good” and “simply shoved aside” the rest
- Most Germans “tried at the very least, even when they didn’t agree 100% with the Third Reich or with National Socialism, to adapt themselves”
61
How does the diary of Victor Klemper support the argument that many Germans deemed anti-semitism/Jewish suffering an "acceptable sacrifice" for the “positive” changes wrought by the Nazi Regime?
- described how in Dresden many middle class Germans would express their disdain at the mistreatment of the Jews but be supportive of other policies such as 1936 remilitarisation of the Rhineland
- 2 students described as “completely anti-Nazi” describing secret trial/execution of 2 young aristocratic women in Berlin not troubled/alarmed that had been denied essential legal rights
62
How did the economy play a role in many Germans deeming anti-semitism/Jewish suffering an “acceptable sacrifice” for the “positive” changes wrought by the Nazi Regime?
Perceived economic progress due to increased military expenditure stimulating production and providing jobs
63
What does Stargardt note Jews were called when being deported?
when Jews were being deported people would call them “useless eaters.”
64
What does Stargardt argue about the construction of concept of Jewish attacks and Jewish terror?
Jewish conspiracy/war time security concerns
65
How does Rudolf Hoss support the argument that the mass murder of millions was not taken up enthusiastically by even those who subscribed to Nazi ideology?
- Rudolf Hoss (longest serving commandant of Auschwitz) describes himself in his memoir as having been ‘troubled by responsibilities, but doing them to the best of his ability, and convening with nature.’
- Written whilst waiting execution in prison, already sentenced to death so contents would have had no impact on his life prospects, likely true reflection of how he felt
66
What does Browning note about the Jozefow Massacre and the men in the Battalion that supports the conclusions made from his study? (5)
- Major Trapp didn’t like having to instruct men to perform task but knew he had to follow his orders.
- Number of older men took up offer of not participating,
- Trapp himself not present whilst shooting took place,
- no of “mercy shots” by NCOs unintentionally shooting past victims/ significant nos who couldn’t continue
- Not typical - no other known cases of a commander so openly inviting and sanctioning non-participation of men in killing action
67
What does Bankier note from his study of the Nov/Dec 1944 US Intelligence interviews with German civilians in evacuations centres/small towns around Aachen? (3)
- Responses generally reflected views of a typical mixed pop encountered by Allied troops during WWII
- Prevalence of strange sense of guilt about Jews/uneasy feeling/open admission great wrong had been committed coupled with a fear of revenge/dread of hearing the worst
- Almost all interviewees said attacking Jews’ was Hitler’s greatest error/all blame on the Fuhrer
68
What did studied interrogations by WG prosecutors in Hamburg trying to found out if reserve policing who participated in mass shooting of Jews should be put on trial for murder find?
found much of the killing on the eastern front was done by small, relatively autonomous groups of executioners, mobile killing squads and the reserve police battalion.
69
What does Bankier argue of German knowledge of the Holocaust? (2)
- by 1943 knowledge of gas as killing method fairly widespread and knowledge of mass murders not confined to soldiers.
- Many ordinary civilians had enough info to realise, if not the extent, then the general direction of Nazi policy
70
What evidence does Bankier use to support his argument that by 1943 many ordinary German civilians had enough information realise, if not the extent, then the general direction of Nazi policy? (2)
- American Intelligence report written in last month of war stated nearly every German living in the area had some knowledge of atrocities committed, and surprisingly large numbers with knowledge of gas vans and how they were used.
- Notes also that priests felt forced to confront the ‘self-imposed wilful ignorance’ of their church members.
71
What evidence supports Bankier's note that priests felt forced to confront the ‘self-imposed wilful ignorance’ of their church members?
Catholic Abp Frings: sermons in Dec 1943 and Mar 1944 unresrvedly condemning killing of Jews in order to purposely raise awareness of the crime, and remove believers' voluntary ignorance
72
Why does Bankier argue the idea of mass murder - not only of Jews - was in the air and that a good no of Germans were psychologically prepared to accept the reality of genocide? (3)
- As early as Dec 1939, officials in charge of planning Poland’s future were advising the destruction of the Jewish ‘subhumanity’ living in the ghettos.
- April 1940, Nazi mag NS Volksdienst suggested it would be desirable to exterminate through Euthanasia 1 million people.
- Suggestion here that people were mentally conditioned to recieve new of Jewish extermination from early on and that they were not against mass murder to begin with
73
Why does Richard Cobb argue that in France there was the execution of Vichy’s antisemitic and anti-Masonic legislation which had nothing to do with German prompting?
- Naval officers “eagerly” led crusade vs Jews and Freemasons in the Nord
- German authorities in both Vichy and Paris happy to let French use whichever form of persecution they wanted on their compatriots
74
What does Cobb note about the relationship between French and Germans in Paris? (5)
- Two-way relationship esp. at the start
- Existed on both sides ties of friendship created in interwar years
- Collaborationists not always the dupes, nor the servile instruments of the Germans despite being bound to compete for German favour
- Men of such total and creeping servility as de Brinon or benoist-Méchin rare even in ultracollaborationist ranks
- In most cases collaboration represented a business relationship profitable to both parties
75
What does Cobb note about the persecution of Jews in Paris? (3)
- Germans gave the orders the French carried them out
- Gestapo and other police bodies delegated the exercise of repression to the French police
- Germans short of repressive personnel and
76
What does Cobb argue about French women in Paris during occupation? (4)
- Many French women latched onto the Germans for what they could get out of them
- in 1940/1 German husband might seem the best hold on the future despite serving soldiers being forbidden from marrying women of occupied countries
- Horizontal collaboration in order to claim benefits from German military authorities and to request nationality for their offspring
- by 1943 switched to US GI
77
When does Marrus and Paxton argue there was turn in French public opinion?
- July-August 1942 rounding up of Jews for deportation
78
What do Marrus and Paxton argue is the cause for the turn in public opinion following the July-August 1942 rounding up of French Jews for deportation? (5)
- Previously anti-Jewish policies followed the law and could be tolerated/approved as part of Petain’s program of national revival but now were violent/cruel police actions
- No longer just men/foreigners of military age being taken away, also women/children and French citizens
- Internees no longer released - nothing heard of deportees again - official phrase “destination unknown”
- No longer distinction between Occupied Zone and Vichy Zone and could no longer attribute systematic abuse to Germans as round ups occurred throughout France and French popsicle conspicuously in charge of them
- French people now unable to persuade themselves that the Jews were not suffering anymore than anyone else in a dark time
79
What do Marrus and Paxton note happened for the first time in Vichy France in Summer of 1942?
For the first time significant no’s of French moderates/supporters of regime now deeply offended by something it had done and voices of open opposition arose from est figures in position of power
80
What is an example of the voice of open opposition arising from established figures in Vichy France?
French cardinals and abps unpublished protest given to Vichy in summer of 1942, otherchurchmen followed
81
Why do Marrus and Paxton argue that the French being critical of violently handing over Jews to Germans did not necessarily make them opposed to Vichy’s more limited measures?
- Prefect of the Lozere and the Bouches-duRhone reported their people hoped the regime would continue to pursue its goals of “a purge” by social and economic measures applied with the necessary :discrimination” which “would eliminate the Jews from the jobs where they are not wanted.”
82
By 1944 in France, what was situation for Jews?
- 75k Jews deported from France to East, most immediately gassed, rest put to work under conditions that made death almost certain, c. 3% survived
83
When di reports of mass killings reach the West?
Reports of mass killings began to reach the West as early as Autumn 1941 of unorganised ones and by early 1942 of systemised
84
What does Reitlinger argue about France?
Loss of less than 25% of French Jewry - no Jewsish community in occupied Europe came off so lightly except in Denmark and this was due in large measure to the tactics of Laval
85
Why do Marrus and Paxton criticise Reitlinger's argument?
suggest they had longer term and broader understanding of Nazi’s plans with Final Solution than evidence suggests
86
What is the significance of the French situation of occupation being different to Eastern Europe? (3)
- more room for decisions/negotiations/bartering with Nazis
- Worked with a very small Germany military presence/still reliant on French bureaucracy
- Instances of persecution of Jews organised by French forces
87
What was the nature of Denmark's involvement with Germany during WWII? (6)
- Outbreak of WWII declared itself neutral
- Decision to occupy Denmark taken December 1939
- Most institutions continued to function under occupation as normal until 1943
- Meant able to develop an effective resistance movement
- Changed following a wave of acts of sabotage/labour strikes/resistance from Danish government to follow German orders
- Denmark placed under direct military occupation
88
What happened to Danish Jewry?
- Most Danish Jews rescued when Nazis order internment in 1943 evacuated to safety in Sweden for c. 7,800 Danish Jews
- Danish resistance movement with the assistance of many ordinary Danish citizens took part in the collective ffort
89
How many Danes died a a result of occupation?
Low mortality rate as a direct result of the occupation c. 3k
90
What was the nature of Norwegian occupation?
German puppet government
91
What was the nature of Norwegian Jewry and their experience of the Holocaust/occupation? (4)
- Small Jewish population c. 2000
- At least c. 800 arrested/detained/deported and c.740 died in concentration camps
- Some survived in camps
- Some fled to Sweden and UK
92
What was the nature of Hungarian relations with the Nazis and what were the implications for the Holocaust?
- Hungary large Jewish population c. 800k, regime initially resistant to Jewish persecution - Nazi’s lost their patience and invaded march 1944
- by July 437k+ Jews deported, 90% killed upon arrival in concentration camps
93
What is the significance of 5.8 million Poles being killed?
This included 90% of the prewar Jewish population
94
What is Gross' argument surrounding massacre of Jews in Polish towns? (3)
- German participation limited
- Active participation from Poles
- Upper echelons and lower
95
What was German participation in massacre of Jews in Jewdabane limited to (Gross)?
taking photos
96
What does Finklestajn, a Jew from Radizlow, describe?
The anti-semitic propaganda which came from the upper echelons of Polish society/influenced the mob of “local hooligans”
97
What does Gross ultimately conclude about Poles?
- Gross: encouraged Poles to take revenge on those who had crucified Christ and cleanse Poland of the Jewish “bloddsuckers”
98
Finlestajn's account of Radizlow (2)
- Town mayor played a prominent role and entire town council supposedly participated in murder
- First question upon arrival of Germans was whether they were allowed to kill Jews and Germans actually regarded locals as having gone overboard
99
What does Fullbrook describe in A Small Town near Auschwitz?
Describes how Udo Lause, a landrat in Bedzin, benefitted from the murder of a local family friend - opportunity to stela/loot Jewish property
100
What does Cesrani argue furthered anti-semitism in sp. Poland/EE?
- ensuing feeling of guilt/fear of retribution then served to foster anti-semitism further - - “Jew-hatred became as much a justification for despoliation as a motive”
101
What does Gross explore as a significant motivation for the 1945-6 pogroms launched against Jewish survivors by Catholic Poles?
was their return/attempts to reclaim property
102
What does Karol Bardon describe?
- An incident where civilians beat 6 individuals to death with clubs, encircled by Germans
- 3 Jews, 3 had held positions in the village Soviet
- (Poland)
103
How were policeman able to track down those Jews who had evaded the roundups and fled to the forests according to Browning?
through a network of polish informers and frequent search patrols
104
What does Kulowki's diary reveal?
- day after first mass shooting of Jews, people willignly helped find Jews for Germans to kill and stolled to Jewish quarter looking for things they could steal from their deserted houses (Poland)
105
What does Browning refer to as the "dirty work"?
- forceful and violent driving out of Jews from their dwellings
- instant killing of frail, sick, elderly, infants unable to march to station/packing train cars to bursting point w jews
106
Who does Browning note this "dirty work" was usually left to?
Hiwis/volunteers from Trawinki made up of Ukrainians, Lativians, Lithuanians and those recruited from POW camps
107
What does Gross argue about punishment that suggests need to look past Germans and more directly at Poles?
- Punishment for other activities prohibited by Nazis that Poles massively engaged in also death.
- Cost difference between joining an Anti-Nazi conspiracy and helping Jews was frequently marginal.
- Argues because Poles not ready to assist Jews and by and large refrained from doing so that the punishment for harbouring Jews meted out by the Germans systematically and without reprieval and the task of helping Jews was so hard
108
Evidence of individual efforts to protect/hide Jews?
- July 1942: a Belorussian woman spontaneously hid a Jew who was fleeing being shot in the Nesvizh ghetto by Belorussian policemen
- Miep Gees and the Frank Family
109
What did the spatial dimension of the Holocaust mean for those in Eastern Europe relating to the ethnic killing/genocide vs those in the West?
- As they were confronted w the massacre of the Jews frequently/directly, indifference meant a willingness to obey German orders/continuation of roles in society but with the ultimate outcome being Jewish persecution
110
What are Dean's conclusions from his work on the participation of local police forces in Belorussia and Ukraine? (2)
- Local police played a supporting role in the “first wave” of Einsatzgruppen killings Autumn of 1941 but could be a degree of regional variation
- Change over time - arguably more active role in “Second wave” of killings 1942/3
111
Evidence to support Dean's conclusions of local policemen playing a supporting role in the first wave of killings?
- 12 Dec 1941: German police relied on Ukrainian auxiliary police to dig ditches in Jewish cemetery for the decimation of the Jewish population in district of Galicia planned
- 3k Jews murdered in Zhitmoir, 60 Ukrainian militia men sealed off the Jewsih quarter and local admin supplied 12 lorries
112
Evidence to support Dean's conclusions that there could be a degree of regional variation in this first wave?
- Local policemen particularly active role in Mir/Jody/Borisove in Belorussia
- Grushevsky describes how at the shooting of Jews in a pit outside of Mir, though German officer in charge, many more Belorussian thant German policemen present
- Still German commands/orders h/e at this point
113
Evidence to support Dean's conclusion of change over time and local police arguably taking a more active role in the "Second wave" of killings 1942/3? (4)
- Summer/Autumn 1942 Ukranian/Belorrusian police outnumbered the Gendarmes 5/10 to 1 in rural areas
- Many “distinguishing themselves” by seeking out Jews in hiding
- Actions became a pathway for personal advancement
- Corrupting impact of power of life/death over others
114
What was the Kaunas incident in Lithuania?
- June 1941
- circle of Lithuanian people watched a young man beating Jews to death with a bar, climbed on top of their bodies and played Lithuanian national anthem,
- NKVD has killed his parents, taking out anger at USSR potentially
115
What was the significance of women and children being killed first in the execution of ethnic killing/genocide? (2)
- killed first because were not deemed useful - and because of their reproductive capacity
- killing the next generation
116
What does Lisa Pine argue? (3)
- eschews portrayal of Jewish women in Nazi camps as monolithically angelic:
- some stole, prostituted themselves, or engaged in aggressive behaviour
- even vs family members
117
What does Lisa Scharlach argue? (3)
- Women’s productive capacity is critical when we consider rape in the context of genocide.
- “Preventing births within the group” is a legal criterion under the Genocide Convention. - Why rape of Jewish women constitutes genocide and is important w regards to Holocaust.
- Also other POW women.
118
What does Kuhne argue? (3)
- Browning’s ordinary men shows in the Nazi genocide the ultimate standard of masculinity was the hardness that was required to overcome guilty feelings about murdering civilians, the alleged racial enemies.
- Objectors not executed/jailed, rather they were shamed/ridiculed/ignored/harrased/isolated/symbolically ostracised
- Came to view themselves as too weak to kill not too good to kill - implicitly confirming the prevailing masculine standard of brutality as well as the morality of genocide
119
What does Westermann's analysis of drinking rituals for Nazi service men argue? (2)
- Drinking rituals paralleled but also trained men into executing collective terror
- In different ways, both allowed perpetrators to prove their masculinity and established informal hierarchies contingent upon ability to overcome restraints/intoxication
120
How does Kuhne argue for a protean masculinity as a hegemonic masculinity in Nazi Germany? (3)
- Hierarchies among men and ability to conform to hegemonic standards crucial but fuelled an inclusive type of martial masculinity
- Soldiering provided men with a male identity defined by integration of femininity
- Allowed emotional and care taking feminine aspects too
121
What does Friedlander argue about Hitler's relationship to the Jews and the Holocaust?
- Hitler regarded the Jews as the “principle evil in Western history and society”/a “lethal and active threat”
- viewed it his mission to “Redeem the world” by eliminating them
122
Support for Friedlander's argument that Hitler was principally concerned with the Jewish threat?
Hitler’s first and last political statements of 1919/45 both about Jews
123
What does Cesarani note has come under attack?
Traditional depiction of Hitler’s subordinates as “mindless drones obeying orders
124
Why does Cesarani argue that though anti-semitism at the heart of Nazi ideology, competing priorities, e.g. Nazi war effort, also impacted course of events? (4)
- Racial policy was NOT priotised at a cost to military sucess
- Jewish labour not indispensable
- No. of trains used to transport Jews v limited
- Military operations always took priority over Jews persecution
125
What does Cesarani argue about Hitler? (2)
- Hitler considered himself a warrior/was driven by a desire to avoid repeating Germany’s 1918 defeat
- For Hitler, WWII/the war vs Jews were one and the same/intrinsically linked
126
How does Gross argue the Jewish experience of displacement was especially unique in its severity? (3)
- Jewish experience of displacement unique in its severity, esp. in the vicinity of the shifting border separating the German and Soviet zones of Polish occupation
- Entire Jewish communities uprooted by the Germans and driven eastward into the Soviet zone where, as often as not, they were denied entry
- Would linger then for days in a no-man’s land - abused, pillaged, raped, shot at, until they bought their way in, or got in by stealth or good luck
127
Why does Gildea argue that experiences of occupation/war meant many ordinary communities of Europeans had little choice but to follow instructions? (3)
Europeans had little choice but to follow instructions
Couldn’t meet basic needs
Forced to work for enemy bc occupying armies used collective punishment to ensure a peaceful occupation for their troops by threatening civilians - made resisters v unpopular
128
What is Stargardt's argument about the spatial dimensions of the ethnic killing being significant? (4)
- Because Jews were killed in the East and “principally” stayed there, this has fundamentally shaped the events of the ‘Final Solution’ and how contemporaries perceived it
- Despite formal directive not take photos, spectators at mass executions, routinely did, incl. images of each other photographing the scene
- 1000s of images of killing sites found in uniform pockets of German prisoners and dead people by Red Army
- News of killings had a paradoxical character as the closer witnesses were to events, the more fragmentary their perspective remained. - Says that as graphic and shocking as they were, the killings witnessed might appear to be discrete or episodic and not part of an organised programme.
129
What evidence does Himka use to support the argument that ethnic killing in Volhynia influenced the course of the Holocaust where it occurred? (2)
- 1943 Ukrainian nationalists murderous ethnic cleansing project vs Polish inhabitants and Poles fought back as members of the Home Army, as Soviet partisans and policemen in German service
- Larger scheme of things - killing ops made only a minor contribution to the Holocaust, but made survival for Jews that much more difficult
130
What unique incident does Himka analyse?
- Unique incident where nationalists entered German service to gain training and weapons and then defected to their own insurgent orgs and independently continued Holocaust in territory under their control using methods Germans had taught them
- Supported by accounts of Jews who managed to survive in Volhynia into 1943 and Soviet investigations of war crimes confirm that Ukranian policemen who helped the Germans exterminate Jews in region subsequently served in UPA
131
What does Himka conclude about the UPA? (4)
- UPA fighting for a Ukrainian state which they understood to be independent but also composed of Ukranians exclusively
- By time UPA emerged in spring of 1943, most of the Jews of Gailicia and Volhynia already dead - those killed in winter 1943/4 were a small no of survivors
- began to systematically kill Jews to eliminate witnesses to their previous crimes from falling into Soviet hands and were used to killing Jews and had internalised rationale for their murders
