Ethics and the Scientific Method Flashcards
What is low level ethical theory?
Describes/defines what is visible
Give examples of low level ethical theory
Typologies (bones)
Sectionable (direct vs. circumstantial evidence)
Degrees of classification (1st degree murder…)
What is middle level theory?
Describes functions/processes of production
How and why, methods, instruction manual
What is high level ethical theory?
Explanation of actions through a paradigm –> why?
What is a paradigm?
Patterns/models guiding actions/thought processes
Give examples of paradigms
Religious, feminism, capitalism, job description
What is an ethical framework?
A high-level theory blueprint to follow when taking action
Give an example of an ethical framework
Medical-ethical framework
What is utilitarianism?
Ends justify the means, maximizes human welfare
What is deontology?
Duty-based, ends do not justify the means
What is moral relativism?
Moral judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint
What are virtue ethics?
Decisions based on virtuous behaviour
Goal is just to be a good person
Often linked to role models
What is supernaturalism?
Entirely religion dependent
Inflexible and absolute
Can be used as an excuse for bad behaviour
What is the scientific method?
Body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge or correcting and integrating previous knowledge
Why is the scientific method necessary?
Scientists investigate natural and physical phenomena BUT perceptions and interpretations of these phenomena are influenced by personal and cultural beliefs SO use of the scientific method to minimize these influences when developing a theory
Outline the four steps of the scientific method
- Observation/description
- Hypothesis
- Test hypothesis
- Refine with independent tests
What is the point of the null hypothesis?
Reduce bias, looking to disprove it in order to reject it for H1
What are the rules for scientific methods?
Must be accepted as valid by scientific community
Must have appropriate controls and standards
What is cognitive bias?
Individuals create their own subjective reality from their perception of the input
How can we avoid bias in forensic science?
Managing flow of information in a lab, work in a linear fashion
What was the purpose of the PCAST report?
Identify steps that could strengthen the forensic science discipline and ensure validity of evidence used in US legal system.
What were the two gaps identified by the PCAST report?
- Need for clarity about the scientific standard for validity and reliability of forensic methods
- Evaluate specific forensic methods to determine whether they have been scientifically established to be valid and reliable
What does foundational validity?
A method is reliable in theory
What three criteria encompass foundational validity?
Repeatable, reproducible, accurate
What does it mean for a method to be repeatable?
Known probability that the examiner obtains the same result when analyzing samples from the same source
What does it mean for a method to be reproducible?
Known probability that different examiners obtian the same result when analyzing the same samples
What does it mean for a method to be accurate?
Examiner obtains correct results both for samples from the same source (true positives) and for samples from different sources (true negatives)
What is applied validity?
Method is proven reliable in practice.
What are the criteria for applied validity?
Reliability
Precision
What does it mean for a method to be reliable?
The product of repeatability, reproducibility and accuracy
What does it mean for a method to be precise?
The relative similarity of output results, irrespective of accuracy
What is scientific validity?
When a method is reliable and valid
What is metrology?
Science of measurement and its application
What form of metrology did the PCAST report define as invalid?
Bite mark analysis
Outline the William Richards case
Found wife Pamela bludgeoned to death, arrested for murder with two hung juries
How did William Richards get convicted in the third trial?
New bite mark evidence used, Dr. Sperber (forensic odontology expert) testified it was a match to Bill’s
Why was William Richards’ case appealed?
Sperber later recanted his testimony, saying he didn’t trust bite mark analysis anymore
What was the outcome of Richards’ initial appeal?
Judge ruled that the prosecution’s case had been undermined by Sperber’s recantation BUT Richards was not exonerated b/c California SC ruled that an expert witness could never be wrong or legally false bc testimony is opinion-based
What was the Bill Richards Bill?
Amendment to state criminal code to state false evidence should also include opinions of experts.
What was Elizabeth Holmes known for?
Founder and CEO of Theranos
What was Theranos?
Company with revolutionary blood testing technology that was supposed to make early detections of cancer, diabetes, pregnancy and more from one drop of blood
What was the problem with Theranos?
It was all a lie, many false positives for things such as diabetes, miscarriage, etc.
What were the key ethical issues of the Theranos case?
Dry labbing, lying, hiding negative results
