Ethics and the Scientific Method

Question 1

What is low level ethical theory?

Answer 1

Describes/defines what is visible

Question 2

Give examples of low level ethical theory

Answer 2

Typologies (bones)
Sectionable (direct vs. circumstantial evidence)
Degrees of classification (1st degree murder…)

Question 3

What is middle level theory?

Answer 3

Describes functions/processes of production
How and why, methods, instruction manual

Question 4

What is high level ethical theory?

Answer 4

Explanation of actions through a paradigm –> why?

Question 5

What is a paradigm?

Answer 5

Patterns/models guiding actions/thought processes

Question 6

Give examples of paradigms

Answer 6

Religious, feminism, capitalism, job description

Question 7

What is an ethical framework?

Answer 7

A high-level theory blueprint to follow when taking action

Question 8

Give an example of an ethical framework

Answer 8

Medical-ethical framework

Question 9

What is utilitarianism?

Answer 9

Ends justify the means, maximizes human welfare

Question 10

What is deontology?

Answer 10

Duty-based, ends do not justify the means

Question 11

What is moral relativism?

Answer 11

Moral judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint

Question 12

What are virtue ethics?

Answer 12

Decisions based on virtuous behaviour
Goal is just to be a good person
Often linked to role models

Question 13

What is supernaturalism?

Answer 13

Entirely religion dependent
Inflexible and absolute
Can be used as an excuse for bad behaviour

Question 14

What is the scientific method?

Answer 14

Body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge or correcting and integrating previous knowledge

Question 15

Why is the scientific method necessary?

Answer 15

Scientists investigate natural and physical phenomena BUT perceptions and interpretations of these phenomena are influenced by personal and cultural beliefs SO use of the scientific method to minimize these influences when developing a theory

Question 16

Outline the four steps of the scientific method

Answer 16

1. Observation/description
2. Hypothesis
3. Test hypothesis
4. Refine with independent tests

Question 17

What is the point of the null hypothesis?

Answer 17

Reduce bias, looking to disprove it in order to reject it for H1

Question 18

What are the rules for scientific methods?

Answer 18

Must be accepted as valid by scientific community
Must have appropriate controls and standards

Question 19

What is cognitive bias?

Answer 19

Individuals create their own subjective reality from their perception of the input

Question 20

How can we avoid bias in forensic science?

Answer 20

Managing flow of information in a lab, work in a linear fashion

Question 21

What was the purpose of the PCAST report?

Answer 21

Identify steps that could strengthen the forensic science discipline and ensure validity of evidence used in US legal system.

Question 22

What were the two gaps identified by the PCAST report?

Answer 22

1. Need for clarity about the scientific standard for validity and reliability of forensic methods
2. Evaluate specific forensic methods to determine whether they have been scientifically established to be valid and reliable

Question 23

What does foundational validity?

Answer 23

A method is reliable in theory

Question 24

What three criteria encompass foundational validity?

Answer 24

Repeatable, reproducible, accurate

Question 25

What does it mean for a method to be repeatable?

Answer 25

Known probability that the examiner obtains the same result when analyzing samples from the same source

Question 26

What does it mean for a method to be reproducible?

Answer 26

Known probability that different examiners obtian the same result when analyzing the same samples

Question 27

What does it mean for a method to be accurate?

Answer 27

Examiner obtains correct results both for samples from the same source (true positives) and for samples from different sources (true negatives)

Question 28

What is applied validity?

Answer 28

Method is proven reliable in practice.

Question 29

What are the criteria for applied validity?

Answer 29

Reliability Precision

Question 30

What does it mean for a method to be reliable?

Answer 30

The product of repeatability, reproducibility and accuracy

Question 31

What does it mean for a method to be precise?

Answer 31

The relative similarity of output results, irrespective of accuracy

Question 32

What is scientific validity?

Answer 32

When a method is reliable and valid

Question 33

What is metrology?

Answer 33

Science of measurement and its application

Question 34

What form of metrology did the PCAST report define as invalid?

Answer 34

Bite mark analysis

Question 35

Outline the William Richards case

Answer 35

Found wife Pamela bludgeoned to death, arrested for murder with two hung juries

Question 36

How did William Richards get convicted in the third trial?

Answer 36

New bite mark evidence used, Dr. Sperber (forensic odontology expert) testified it was a match to Bill's

Question 37

Why was William Richards' case appealed?

Answer 37

Sperber later recanted his testimony, saying he didn't trust bite mark analysis anymore

Question 38

What was the outcome of Richards' initial appeal?

Answer 38

Judge ruled that the prosecution's case had been undermined by Sperber's recantation BUT Richards was not exonerated b/c California SC ruled that an expert witness could never be wrong or legally false bc testimony is opinion-based

Question 39

What was the Bill Richards Bill?

Answer 39

Amendment to state criminal code to state false evidence should also include opinions of experts.

Question 40

What was Elizabeth Holmes known for?

Answer 40

Founder and CEO of Theranos

Question 41

What was Theranos?

Answer 41

Company with revolutionary blood testing technology that was supposed to make early detections of cancer, diabetes, pregnancy and more from one drop of blood

Question 42

What was the problem with Theranos?

Answer 42

It was all a lie, many false positives for things such as diabetes, miscarriage, etc.

Question 43

What were the key ethical issues of the Theranos case?

Answer 43

Dry labbing, lying, hiding negative results