Ethics And formulating Research

Question 1

Ethical guidelines for human participants (8)

Answer 1

Protection from harm
Informed consent
Withdrawal rights
Deception
Confidentiality
Privacy
Voluntary participation
Debriefing

Question 2

Ethical guidelines for animals. 3 r’s

Answer 2

Replacement
Reduction
Refinement

Question 3

Replacement

Answer 3

• Avoiding or replacing the use of animals in areas where they otherwise would have been used.
  
  • Accelerating the development and use of predictive and robust models and tools, based on the latest science and technologies, to address important scientific questions without the use of animals.

Question 4

Full replacement

Answer 4

• includes the use of human volunteers, tissues and cells, mathematical and computer models, and established cell lines

Question 5

Partial replacement

Answer 5

• includes use of some animals that, based on current scientific thinking, are not considered capable of experiencing suffering.
• This includes invertebrates such as Drosophila, nematode worms and social amoebae, and immature forms of vertebrates, primary cells (and tissues) taken from animals killed solely for this purpose.

Question 6

Reduction

Answer 6

• the number of animals used consistent with scientific aims.
  
  • Appropriately designed and analysed animal experiments that are robust and reproducible, and truly add to the knowledge base.
  • Includes the use of imaging which allow longitudinal measurements in the same animal to be taken (rather than for example culling cohorts of animals at specific time points), or microsampling of blood, where small volumes enable repeat sampling in the same animal. In these scenarios, it is important to ensure that reducing the number of animals used is balanced against any additional suffering that might be caused by their repeated use.Minimising
  • Sharing data and resources (e.g. animals, tissues and equipment) between research groups and organisations can also contribute to reduction

Question 7

Refinement

Answer 7

• Minimising the pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm that research animals might experience.
  
  • Advancing research animal welfare by exploiting the latest in vivo (in the living) technologies and by improving understanding of the impact of welfare on scientific outcomes.
  • Includes ensuring the animals are provided with housing that allows the expression of species-specific behaviours, using appropriate anaesthesia and analgesia to minimise pain, and training animals to cooperate with procedures to minimise any distress.
  • Evidence suggests that pain and suffering can alter an animal’s behaviour, physiology and immunology. Such changes can lead to variation in experimental results that impairs both the reliability and repeatability of studies.

Question 8

Animal research

Answer 8

The Principles of animal ethics – The Three Rs – provide a framework for more humane animal research. They are embedded in international law and are the basis for any approval for animal research or testing.

Question 9

Scientific method

Answer 9

• Make an observation
  
  • Ask a question
  • Form a hypothesis that answers the question
  • Make a prediction based on the hypothesis
  • Do an experiment to test the prediction
  • Analyse the results
  • Hypothesis
  • Report findings

Question 10

Aim

Answer 10

• Identify the research issue or problem to be solved
  
  • Develop a research question based on the aim

Question 11

Variables

Answer 11

• List all variables that may relate to the research question, then determine which is to be manipulated (independent) to see its effect (dependent), and others which could potentially affect the outcomes (extraneous). A well designed experiment will have all the extraneous variables controlled.

Question 12

Hypothesis. 3

Answer 12

Directional
Non directional
Null

Question 13

Directional hypothesis

Answer 13

states which way you think the results are going to go, for example in an experimental study we might say…”Participants who have been deprived of sleep for 24 hours will have more cold symptoms in the following week after exposure to a virus than participants who have not been sleep deprived”; the hypothesis compares the two groups/conditions and states which one will ….have more/less, be quicker/slower, etc.

Question 14

Non directional hypothesis

Answer 14

States that there will be a difference between the two groups/conditions but does not say which will be greater/smaller, quicker/slower etc. Using our example above we would say “There will be a difference between the number of cold symptoms experienced in the following week after exposure to a virus for those participants who have been sleep deprived for 24 hours compared with those who have not been sleep deprived for 24 hours.”

Question 15

Null hypothesis

Answer 15

States that the alternative or experimental hypothesis is NOT the case, if your experimental hypothesis was directional you would say… Participants who have been deprived of sleep for 24 hours will NOT have more cold symptoms in the following week after exposure to a virus than participants who have not been sleep deprived and any difference that does arise will be due to chance alone.

Question 16

Qualitative vs quantitative

Answer 16

Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable.
Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and relating to language.

Question 17

Experimental research

Answer 17

• The independent variable is manipulated, ideally with all other extraneous variables controlled, to determine its effect on the dependent variable. As it is not always possible to eliminate all uncontrolled extraneous variables, a control group is often used as a comparison to establish baseline data.
  
  • Limitations, such as ethical considerations, may restrict use of experimental research

Question 18

Observational studies

Answer 18

• Where it is not actually possible to manipulate the independent variable, researchers may simply observe and record data linking the independent and dependent variables, using large data samples to overcome effects of uncontrolled extraneous variables.
  
  • These studies can help psychologists to make links between variables but are not able to establish causation.

Question 19

Case study

Answer 19

• In depth direct observational or non-experimental study using a single person who shows a rare or unusual behavior or phenomenon.
  
  • A sample size of one is prone to bias and does not provide enough data to draw conclusions, so these are a starting point for further research.

Question 20

Correlational studies

Answer 20

• Statistical comparison of data to establish relationships between variables.
  Correlation is not causation, but these studies are useful for providing alternative hypotheses for experimental studies.

Question 21

Longitudinal studies

Answer 21

• The same subjects are observed repeatedly over an unlimited period of time (from months to decades). These studies are useful to determine sequence of events, changes over time and they can be used to establish cause and effect, but they are more expensive and time consuming.

Question 22

Cross sectional studies

Answer 22

• Single observations on a large group of subjects provide a snapshot of data to establish links between variables. Cheaper and faster than a longitudinal study, these may be used before planning a longer study.

Question 23

Population vs sample

Answer 23

• A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about
  - A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.

Question 24

Convenience sampling

Answer 24

• Convenience sampling a is defined as a data collection method where you select the samples from a conveniently available pool of participants, eg standing at a shopping mall asking people to participate.
  
  • Convenience sampling is easy, fast, and economical. It is very useful when a researcher decides to conduct a quick study.
  • It is prone to bias and not great for getting genuine representation of the population.

Question 25

Snowballing

Answer 25

• Snowball sampling is where new units are recruited by other units to form part of the sample. Snowball sampling can be a useful way to conduct research about people with specific traits who might otherwise be difficult to identify (e.g., people with a rare disease).
  
  • Snowball sampling can be a useful way to conduct research about people with specific traits who might otherwise be difficult to identify (e.g., people with a rare disease).
  • The sample is prone to bias and not representative of the entire population.

Question 26

Random sampling

Answer 26

• A random sampling technique is when each member of the target population has an equal chance of being recruited to partake in the experiment.
  
  • Less prone to bias, as a large random sample should be representative of the whole population.
  • This is only effective if the population and sample are relatively homogenous, and it can be difficult to gather a truly random sample.

Question 27

Stratified sampling

Answer 27

• Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, or stratification, the strata are formed based on members’ shared attributes or characteristics, such as income or educational attainment.
  
  • Reduces bias as the sample is more truly representative of the population.
  • It is more expensive, time consuming and difficult to access participants and initial research needs to be conducted to determine the subgroups and their frequency in the population.

Question 28

Random allocation

Answer 28

• Sample participants will be allocated to groups, such as control and test group.
  Random allocation is when the researchers divide the participants and allocate them to certain groups using a random method. For instance, in an experiment to test the effects of a new drug on depression the researchers might use a random number generator to assign their 25 participants a number from 1 – 25. They could then put all the odds in one group and the evens in another.

Question 29

Advantages of random sampling

Answer 29

• Random allocation greatly decreases systematic error, so individual differences in responses or ability are far less likely to affect the results.

Question 30

Selective allocation

Answer 30

• When allocating participants selectively the researchers “select” who will go in each group based on a particular criteria. In the example above, for instance, there might be 8 females and 17 males so the researchers want to make sure that the number of female participants is equal in both groups so that gender is not a confounding variable. They would then make sure they chose four females to be in each group.