Ethics

Question 1

Name a cultural relativist

Answer 1

J L Mackie

Question 2

What does Mackie argue

Answer 2

that there are no universal morals as it is relative to the culture and so might differ

Question 3

How does Mackie justify his cultural relativism

Answer 3

(diversity thesis)- no two cultures are the same and ethical standards have meaning solely in the culture from which they emanate

Question 4

What is Mackie’s argument from disagreement built upon

Answer 4

the truth of the diversity and dependency thesis

Question 5

What is the best explanation for diversity according to Mackie

Answer 5

Forms of Life (the way we live)- cause of our absolutism

Question 6

Example of how forms of life effect diverisity

Answer 6

gender equality- many verses in the bible which point to gender equality (Galantis 3:28- there is neither male nor female but all our one in Christ Jesus) but it still took women working in factories during the wars for gender equality to rise- change in form of life before change in moral thinking

Question 7

Criticisms of cultural relativism

Answer 7

• argument is dependent on truth of diversity thesis which many argue is wrong

Question 8

Why do philosophers argue that the diversity thesis is wrong

Answer 8

contest that whilst we can’t deny diversity its not as extensive as we think- moral disagreement isn’t that widespread

Question 9

How did CS Lewis dismiss the diversity thesis

Answer 9

underneath the thesis there is a bedrock of key universal values (quarrelling on the train- no sense of proving someone is wrong if there wasn’t an agreement on what was right and wrong)
Differences lay in the interpretation

Question 10

Explain Mackie’s argument from Queerness

Answer 10

moral values are unusual (compel us to act in certain ways)- refrain from killing as there is something in value itself which compels us not to kill
It is the moral property goodness which has the intrinsic power of being motivating BUT not an objective truth as it doesn’t actually exist- can’t find it in the world we invent it
power to motivate comes from a psychological force of being educated into and belonging to social institutions (gives the values the appearance of objectivity)

Question 11

Criticisms of Cultural relativism

Answer 11

Tolerance seems like it could be a universal value- if all values are culturally relative than so is tolerance- if tolerance is also relative than it can’t be good (no longer favourable to the theory)
Circular- if absolutism is correct then morally right actions are right by definition thus CR is working from the assumption that absolutism is wrong which creates a circular arguments (moral absolutism is wrong because moral relativism is right because moral absolutism is wrong…)
Diversity Thesis is inductive- based on probability (can’t conclude with certainty that there are no moral truths)

Question 12

Why is the diversity thesis a false inference according to Rachels

Answer 12

‘different cultures have different moral codes therefore there is no objective truth’- can’t say ‘therefore’ as they’re not both statements of fact
(2) is a belief- can’t prove the CR argument as it doesn’t follow from observation (bivalence)

Question 13

What is ethical subjectivism

Answer 13

morality is dependent on the individual professing a moral view

Question 14

What does Ayre say in defence of subjectivism

Answer 14

When a person says ‘abortion is morally right’ they are doing nothing more than expressing an emotion- no means by which truth value can be established

Question 15

What does Dostoevsky say in defence of subjectivism

Answer 15

Everything is permitted- no persons opinion is anymore correct than anothers (no moral choice we make represents the truth)

Question 16

Positives of subjectivism

Answer 16

promotes autonomy, tolerance and emphasises the importance of individuality

Question 17

Criticisms of subjectivism

Answer 17

at the heart it is a contradictory theory- in holding that there are no moral truths independent on emotion subjectivism has become an objective truth

Question 18

What is deontological absolutism

Answer 18

advocates one universal moral code- rightness of an action doesn’t depend on the consequences or the cultural beliefs of the community BUt on certain features of the act itself which determines whether it is right or wrong (has intrinsic value)

Question 19

What is Kant’s categorical imperative

Answer 19

work our morality using categorical imperative- moral actions are those which can be universalised
(e.g- can’t universalised stealing as if everyone did it there would be no notion of property and stealing would be impossible)

Question 20

Why does Kan’t categorical imperative work

Answer 20

as all humans have the same reason faculty which functions the same in all time and culture

Question 21

Criticisms of Kant

Answer 21

no sufficient evidence that all humans have the same reason faculty
neglects consequences of actions suggesting that only motivation is important- emotion and empathy shouldn’t motivate an action as it is simply about fulfilling your duty which seems intuitatively wrong
Maxim can be qualified until it can universalised- eating my dead mother is wrong unless it is to fulfill her spiritual wishes (making cannabilism seem morally right)

Question 22

What is Rachels view

Answer 22

Bedrock of universal truths from which diversity is built

Question 23

What are Rachels three universal laws

Answer 23

1) policy of caring for the young to ensure the contintuation of the group
2) rule against lying
3) rule against murder

Question 24

What does Rachels argue the differences in moral codes stem from

Answer 24

Stem from differences in beliefs not facts
- In India its wrong to eat cows but that’s because they have a divine status in India- relativism is right in so far that it reminds us that morality is relative to belief systems

Question 25

How is cultural relativism wrong according to Rachels

Answer 25

CR is wrong that we cannot judge some practices as universally undesirable and others as desirable
- all cultures protect their young otherwise they would not survive and truth telling is universally accepted as trust is necessary for survival

Question 26

What is divine command theory (DCT)

Answer 26

morality is ultimately based on the commands and character of God and morally rights actions are the ones which God commands or requires

Question 27

What claims does DCT include

Answer 27

1) God in some sense determines what is moral

2) moral obligations are derived from God’s commands

Question 28

Why is DCT compelling

Answer 28

• provides an absolute standard of right and wrong, and good and bad which doesn’t depend on human opinipn or society but what is laid down by God (objective metaphysical foundation for morality)
• origins of morality rests in a personal moral being and this resolves the problem of where the moral goodness comes from

Question 29

How does William Lane Craig defend DCT (in terms of why we should still be moral)

Answer 29

we are held accountable for our actions by God and so good in the end will triumph over evil
- rational to act agains our self-interest as self sacrifice had merit within the theist framework and is commanded by God

Question 30

Criticism of William Lane Craig DCT

Answer 30

nothing meritioius about doing a good act in hope of a reward
- ethics is the pursuit of a supreme good which provides humans with the happiness they seek they then must love the objects in the right way to obtain this- love God first as in doing so you will be able to love everything else (Augustine)

Question 31

Other criticisms of DCT

Answer 31

How are we to know what Gods commands are
God commands universal absolutes so doing the right thing is dependent on whether we know what the absolutes are in the first place
contradictory laws- which is morally good
- eg should we work on the sabbath (Exegesis 20:8-9 vs
Mark 2:27)
What do we do when we encounter a moral problem that God has not revealed his will on- bible doesn’t mention God’s will on abortion
Theological impossibility of accessing the divine truth undermines the argument that there are divine truths- why should we believe that ‘what God commands is our moral duty’ when we can never be sure of what God has really commanded

Question 32

Positives of DCT

Answer 32

DCT more plausible form of ethical objectivism when our ignorance is accepted
DCT only states that good is identical to God’s will not that knowledge of the good must be epistemically available to us in order to be good
Good exists whether we know it or not- our inability to understand what God wants which explains our moral depravity

Question 33

What is the Euthyphro dilemma

Answer 33

Is something good because God wills it to be or does God will it because it is good

Question 34

What are the implications of both sides of the Euthyphro dilemma

Answer 34

if the divine is the source of morality then God can will us to do things which we take to be morally appauling (contradictory)
if divine is not the source of morality then good is just the transcendent moral laws and you don’t have to follow God’s commands to judge what is right and wrong

Question 35

Problems if the divine is the source of morality

Answer 35

problem of arbitrainess/randomness- morality seems to rest on arbitrary foundations as God could will us to believe that infanticide is good
- arbitratiness undermines the congency of human moral authority by rendering our moral statements empty
Meaningless- without a moral framework independent of God it is meaningless to describe God’s commands as either good or bad as God’s commands are identical with the good- it is tautological so no meaningful way to talk of any action

Question 36

How can DCT overcome the problem of meaningless in the Euthyphro dilemma

Answer 36

use H20=water example- don’t dismiss it as mere tautology as concept of water is different to the concept of H20- different concepts pick out one in the same property

Question 37

Problems if the divine commands things because they are goof

Answer 37

committed to the view that God is not the highest authority in the universe- moral law which transcends God
- if God approves kindness because it is a virtue then it seems God discovers morality rather then inventing it (John Arthur)

Question 38

Ways of overcoming problems of first horn of dilemma (good because God wills it to be)

Answer 38

Bite the Bullet- just accept that God commands cruelty to overcome randomness- if God decided that inflicting suffering on humans is good then we just have to accept it
Robert Adams- just because it is logically possible for God to command cruelty not something he would do given his character (he is all loving)
Modified DCT

Question 39

What is modified DCT

Answer 39

what is good is identical with the will of supremely loving benevolent God- an act is good iff its in accordance with God’s loving will

Question 40

Problems with modified DCT

Answer 40

limits God’s power and soverignty by saying that there are things that God is unable to command because the contradict his identity as a loving God
problem with ‘goodness’- would have to be defined independently of God in order to know that a loving God can only command ‘good’ actions (how do we justify independent human knowledge of what is good and bad)

Question 41

What is natural law theory

Answer 41

we have natural understanding of what is good and bad independently of knowing God’s commands- God has created us with a natural moral law/ conscience which gives us the ability to understand what God has defined as good and bad

Question 42

Problem with natural law theory

Answer 42

undermines God’s omnipotence- once you accept God made the world in certain way he is metaphysically constrained to act historically in line with the laws he created for himself