Ethical theories - Ethical relativism, Utilitarianism, Kantianism Flashcards
Describe the ‘always right’ objection to Ethical Relativism
Implies that any individual’s or group’s beliefs must always be right, but there have been incorrect moral beliefs, so this must not be true.
Explain Kant’s conception of a Good will
Actions ought to be judged based on their intentions, not their outcomes; right acts are motivated by a desire to do one’s duty
What are the two objections to the humanity test?
- incompleteness
2. wrong answers (means only vs. significant harm)
Define utilitarianism
The right act in a situation is the one that promotes the greatest pleasure and the least pain, with everyone’s concerns given equal weight
Describe the Experience machine objection to hedonism.
“experience machine” - go in and have any experiences desired, indefinitely -> most pleasurable
Hedonism suggests this is the best life, but it is devoid of meaning, relationships, accomplishment, and is based on lies
Describe the wrong answers objection to the humanity test.
In cases where treating a rational being as a means only is the only way to prevent significant harm to a rational being, the test appears to give the wrong answer.
Describe the promises objection to consequentialism.
Suggests that promises ought to be broken if fulfillment would not produce the best results (e.g. donate money instead of paying for service)
Define an perfect duty.
A duty which must always be followed (Violations would fail the universal law test because of a contradiction in thought)
Define hedonism
The sole ultimate good is pleasure, and the sole ultimate bad is pain.
Ethical Relativism (define)
The idea that there is no objective truth in ethics; moral truths are entirely relative to the individual’s or group’s beliefs.
What are the two arguments for Cultural relativism?
- Cultural imperialism
2. Empirical verification of moral claims
Define deontology
The right action is doing one’s duty
Define a contradiction in willing (w.r.t. the Universal law version of the categorical imperative test)
If converted to a universal law, the law will contradict what the person will (later) want - law is conceivable, but wouldn’t want it to be a law
Describe the too demanding objection to equal consideration
Denies the importance of special relationships, and suggests that we ought to give away all surplus time & money, etc. -> impossible
Explain the empirical verification argument for cultural relativism, and describe two objections.
Moral claims cannot be empirically verified, and thus cannot be judged to be objectively true/false. They are more like tastes/preferences - need no justification.
- Not all objectively true statements are empirically verifiable
- They are different from preferences in that they require rational justification (-> objective)
What are the two objections to Cultural Relativism?
- everyone always right
2. everyone equally right
Describe the incompleteness objection to the humanity test
Does not explain our moral duties to animals or non-rational humans
Define a categorical imperative
A rule which ought to be followed regardless of one’s goals, preferences, desires, etc.
Describe the objections to rule utilitarianism
- The best rule is to follow the rule unless the best results are obtained by ignoring it
- If this is considered too flexible to be a rule, why should we follow rules that do not produce the best results (rule worship)
Define consequentialism
The right act is determined entirely by its consequences
What are the two Kantian tests of categorical imperatives?
Universal Law
Humanity
Describe a contradiction in thought (w.r.t. the Universal law version of the categorical imperative test)
If practiced by everyone, all the time, the practice would be self-defeating or self-contradictory
Explain the response to the justice objection to consequentialism
The counter-examples given are unrealistic, so our intuitive principles (developed for realistic situations) cannot be expected to give sensible results
How does Utilitarianism challenge traditional moral values?
Makes counter-intuitive suggestions:
- euthanasia morally permissible even if illegal, provided it gives best outcomes
- promises should be broken if better outcome
- children ought to be adopted rather than biological
- organ donation should be required/opt-out
Describe the equality of beliefs objection to ethical relativism.
Implies that all beliefs are equal, since no individual or group or culture is ever wrong in their beliefs/truths. This is not true (racism, Nazis), so cultural relativism must be false.
Describe the too strict objection to the universal law test.
There are some actions which cannot be willed into universal law because of a contradiction in thought, which are not morally impermissible
What are the two objections to the universal law test?
- Too strict
2. Uncertain maxim
Define an imperfect duty
Duty which must sometimes be followed (Violations fail the universal law test because of a contradiction in willing)
Explain the cultural imperialism argument for cultural relativism and an objection.
We ought to be respectful of others’ cultures because cultural imperialism is wrong.
This implies that it is always (independent of culture) wrong to interfere, contradicting the claim that there is no objective right or wrong.
What are the two types of Kantian duties?
Perfect and imperfect
Define Equal consideration.
No one’s good is to be counted as more important than anyone else’s.
What are the three components of utilitarianism?
- Consequentialism
- Hedonism
- Equal consideration
Describe the justice objection to consequentialism.
Consequentialism ignores individuals’ rights, allowing them to be violated if it gives a better outcome (ex: forced/subverted organ “donation”)
Describe the Humanity version of the categorical imperative test.
“One must treat humanity, whether in one’s own self or in that of another, always as an end, and never merely as a means.” (treat rational beings as such, not as things)
Define rule utilitarianism
The right thing to do is to follow the rule which, if applied consistently, gives the best results (the best rule)
Define hypothetical imperative
Rule that one ought to follow, given one’s goals, preferences, desires, etc.
Define Situational ethic
Right and wrong depend on the situation; there are no hard and fast rules.
What are the two types of Kantian imperatives?
Categorical, hypothetical
Describe the Kantian distinction between a rational being and a thing
Rational being: Being that can follow hypothetical and categorical imperatives
Thing: anything else
Describe the ‘not all pleasures are good’ objection to hedonism
Pleasures that are gotten by violating others’ rights are not good. Ex: sadist takes pleasure in seeing others suffer
Describe the response to the too demanding objection to equal consideration
We are actually required to take some time for ourselves, take care of ourselves, because that will produce the best outcomes (it is in no one’s best interests to have rampant mental breakdowns, etc.)
Describe the Universal law version of the categorical imperative test.
“Act only on those maxims which you can, at the same time, will into universal law.”
Describe the uncertain maxim objection to the universal law test.
By taking care in wording maxim, almost any act can be made to appear right
