Ethical theories 1

Question 1

What is deontology about?

Answer 1

Deontology is about the duty to act right. Actions are judged based on the action itself. It examines the action’s fulfilment of universal moral principles. It’s not about the consequences of it. Not “Don’t hit someone, you’ll hurt them”, but “Don’t hit someone, hitting is bad”
Aim is to act according to your duty to respect Others
as ends-in-themselves. It started with the ideas of Immanuel Kant, became the foundation of human rights and enlightenment morality.
• Respect for autonomy

Question 2

What is consequentialism about?

Answer 2

When consequentialism arose in the 17th/18th century, it was called utilitarianism: judging an action based on its consequences. The limits of consequentialism are that you don’t always know (all) the consequences

Question 3

What movement were both Hume and Kant part of?

Answer 3

Philosophers like Hume and Kant were part of the enlightenment: people should think for themselves. Freedom against arbitrary powers (kings, the church)

Question 4

According to Kant, how can people be freed?

Answer 4

According to Kant, people can be freed by free and critical thinking

Question 5

Did Hume agree with Kant about how people can be freed?

Answer 5

Yes, but he was very busy with his battle against mystification. (=People in power refer to mystical concepts to justify their power –> “I’m king because God chose me”)

Question 6

Who was René Descartes?

Answer 6

He lived 1596-1650 and was the first rationalist philosopher. He said “I think, therefore I am”

Question 7

What is the view of rationalism?

Answer 7

“Reason provides us with certainty about the world.” –> You can’t trust your senses, so you must think

Question 8

Who was David Hume?

Answer 8

He lived 1711-1776. He was one of the most important empirical philosophers

Question 9

What is the view of empiricism?

Answer 9

“Nothing is in our mind, what was not before in our senses.” –>Trust senses, then think

Question 10

What is utilitarianism?

Answer 10

Aim is to produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It started with the ideas of David Hume, developed further by Jeremy Bentham 18th century, John Stuart Mill 19th century.

It is about:

• maximizing happiness, minimizing suffering
• the good of the whole
• Judging an action on its consequences
• examining the action’s contribution to pain vs. pleasure (sensory states)

Question 11

What is the great philosophical debate on the origin of knowledge?

Answer 11

The two sides are: rationalism (can’t trust senses, must think) and empiricism (trust senses, then think)

Question 12

Who was Immanuel Kant?

Answer 12

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the most important deontological philosopher. He was not a rationalist, but also not an empiricalist. He accepted both of the premises –> senses have hard-wired limitations that can be overcome with rational reflection.

Question 13

What is freedom according to Kant/deontology?

Answer 13

freedom according to Kant is natural experience and rationality balanced.

Question 14

What is rational freedom according to Kant/deontology?

Answer 14

rational freedom according to Kant is the freedom to do good

Question 15

Where does autonomy come from according to deontology?

Answer 15

According to deontology autonomy comes from overcoming limitations by rationality

Question 16

Which three books did Kant write?

Answer 16

1. What can we know?
2. What do we ought to do?
3. What might we hope for?

Question 17

What is Kant’s book about what we ought to do about?

Answer 17

How can we be free (=the ability and will to choose what is right) if there are rules for everything?

• If you are under threat, you have no freedom
• Following one’s instincts, pleasures and social environment gives one no choice in freedom. They can mislead without using rational thought
• A choice in ignorance is no real choice in freedom
• The free autonomous person decides for themselves

Question 18

How can you make accountable decisions?

Answer 18

see–> reflect –> understand –> act. Only an autonomous human can make accountable decisions

Question 19

Who can’t be autonomous humans according to Kant?

Answer 19

Plants, animals, babies and the mentally disabled. If you have the ability to recognize right from wrong, you have the duty to act accordingly.

Question 20

What is the ultimate test for a moral principle?

Answer 20

The categorical imperative

Question 21

What is the categorical imperative?

Answer 21

Act only according to that maxim (=behavioural rule) by which you can at the same time will that it should become an universal law.
can: it has to be possible to live up to the rule (in an empirical world. It shouldn’t go against a natural law)
will: It is what you rationally understand is right, not what you desire or want. Not “I want candy” but “I want a salad, because it is good for me”
Universal law: applying your choice to everyone in every situation

Question 22

What is the hypothetical imperative?

Answer 22

It is an exception from the categorical imperative. It is only valid in a very specific context. It is about respecting a means to an end. –>Practical necessity may justify a specific action as a means to reach some other end that one wills to achieve.

Question 23

What happens when two rational persons meet?

Answer 23

Rational beings make their own rules (categorical imperatives) that grant them freedom

However:
When two rational beings meet, they can never impose their Will on each other, without contradicting their own freedom. Because that would contradict their own choice to live according to a universal moral law

Therefore:
the basic principle of moral action is..
always act so as to treat other human beings as an end-in-itself and never merely as a means

Question 24

What are the problems with utilitarianism/ consequentialism?

Answer 24

• Good(thing)s are incommensurable (can’t be compared)

- The end justifies the means

Question 25

What are the problems with deontology?

Answer 25

• How to move from individuals to society

- How to prioritize duties

Question 26

Who is John Rawls?

Answer 26

John Rawls (1921-2002) developed “A theory of justice”

Question 27

What is “A theory of justice”?

Answer 27

“Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought. A theory, however elegant and
economical, must be rejected or revised if it is untrue;
likewise laws and institutions, no matter how efficient or well arranged, must be reformed or abolished if they are unjust”.

Question 28

What are the different parts of “A theory of justice”?

Answer 28

-The social contract: How to order the relations between persons or groups
“Those who engage in social cooperation choose together the principles which are to assign basic rights and duties and to determine the division of social benefits.”
-The veil of ignorance
-The principle of justice: fairness. Among free and equal persons, self-imposed obligations