Ethical implications of research studies and theory Flashcards
Ethical Implications
The impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people, especially participants. This includes, at a societal level, influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded.
Social Sensitivity
Sieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research’.
Social Sensitivity
The degree of social sensitivity of research should be an important part of planning what will be examined.
There tends to be an assumption that if the BPS ethical guidelines are followed when researching human participants then there are no ethical concerns with the research.
However, this may not always be the case, as when results are published, they can have negative effects beyond the original participants, such as:
This can include reinforcing damaging stereotypes in terms of culture/race/ gender/sexuality etc.
The findings may also concern members of the public (e.g. research into effect of day-care on IQ score may concern parents who have no choice but to put their children in day-care)
Self-fulfilling prophecies - some people may read research and this could change their own behaviour (e.g. gender differences in coping with stress)
Socially Sensitive Research
The research might affect people or groups in society, who could be any of the following:
The participants in the research. Their friends and family could also be affected as a consequence.
The researcher(s) may also be affected. This could also mean there is an effect on the institution for which they work.
Groups potentially impacted by socially sensitive research include sub-cultures and sub-groups, such as those with certain religious and political beliefs, ethnic minorities or groups with a particular sexual preference.
Sieber and Stanley identified four parts of the research process that raise important ethical implications in socially sensitive areas:
The research question
The Methodology used
The institutional context
Interpretation and application of findings
Research that Influenced Public Policy
Cyril Burt was influential in establishing the 11+ examination in the UK, which was used to determine whether children went on to study at grammar school or not (a decision which arguably had a significant impact on their subsequent life chances).
Burt’s views were based on the evidence he produced that intelligence was genetic, citing studies of twins that showed a heritability coefficient of 0.77 (Burt, 1955).
Discrepancies in his ‘data’ later revealed that Burt had made most of it up and he was publicly discredited.
The 11+, however, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence remained for a good few years afterwards and still lingers.
Sieber and Stanley suggest ways to ensure socially sensitive research is carried out correctly and the negative ethical implications are limited:
Take more care over consent and debriefing when the issue is socially sensitive;
Be aware of how their findings may be interpreted and used by others;
Make explicit the assumptions underlying their research (e.g. nomothetic/idiographic) so that the public can consider whether they agree with these;
Make limitations of their research explicit (e.g. sample/methodology);
Be careful how they communicate with the media and policy makers;
Be aware of the balance between their obligations to their participants and their obligations to society (e.g. if the participant tells them something that they feel they should pass on to the police or social services);
REFLEXIVITY: They should be aware of their own values and biases and those of the participants.
Examples of theories/studies where there are ethical implications
Attachment
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment suggests that children form one special attachment bond, usually with their mother, which must take place within a critical period. Bowlby also suggested that this attachment bond affects their future relationships through an internal working model. While Bowlby’s theory has contributed to the development of childcare practices, it has also encouraged the view that a woman’s place is at home with her children, which could make some mothers feel guilty for wanting to return to work following childbirth.
Examples of theories/studies where there are ethical implications
Pyschopathology
The Definitions of Abnormality could have implications for those who display more eccentric behaviours. Szasz (1972) argued that the diagnosis of mental illness could lead to individuals being labelled and result in discrimination against those who do not conform to social norms. Consequently, non-conformists might be excluded from society i.e. as a form of social control.
The Genetic Explanation for OCD is potentially socially sensitive due to its deterministic nature. It may lead to genetic screening of the population to identify this genetic susceptibility, with the potential for genetic engineering foetuses in the future so that babies are not born with a predisposition to OCD. This creates the danger that genes might be used as a convenient explanation for complicated human behaviour. However, psychologists have argued that if individuals discover a genetic predisposition then this gives them the opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills to protect them from its influence.
Examples of theories/studies where there are ethical implications
Social Influence
Milgram’s (1963) research – do the ‘ends justify the means’? The participants were deceived and were unable to give fully informed consent. The experiment also caused significant distress, and the participants were told or coerced to continue against their will. On the other hand, participants were debriefed after the experiment and a follow-up interview took place a year later, suggesting no long-term effects.His research could have been used to ensure orders are obeyed (socially sensitive).
The BPS code of ethics together with university ethics committee require the ethical implications of research to have been considered if research is to be conducted.
Stringent guidelines are in place to protect all people who may be involved in the process. The guidelines have become more careful as time has passed so the chances of research causing problems have been reduced.
BUT what is not required to be considered is the wider impact of research i.e. ethical guidelines may protect the immediate needs of research participants, but may not deal with all the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society.
For example, with socially sensitive research….on homosexuality, race, gender, addiction etc. the findings may have negative consequences for the participants, for the section of society they represent or indeed for the whole of society.
Also, ethical guidelines don’t ask researchers to consider how their research might be used by others, as recommended by Sieber and Stanley.
Therefore, it does not seem sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of the individuals in research – there must also be some consideration of the likely impact of the research on the larger group of which the participant is a member.
However, it can be difficult to foresee what the effects of research might be on the researcher, participants and society. Why is it hard to be objective when judging this?
There is potential for bias from within the decision makers e.g. they may not be able to see the effect of their research on a different culture/gender to their own. The real impact of research can only ever be known once it has been made public.
Furthermore, the ethical guidelines are seen by some to be too strict, thus preventing research from being conducted that could elicit helpful findings that could benefit many people.
Socially sensitive research can lead to issues of discrimination and therefore some psychologists would argue against conducting this form of research.
For example, research examining racial differences in IQ has been used to justify new (and often unwarranted) forms of social control.
On the other hand, it is important to conduct socially sensitive research that might be controversial and involve underrepresented people in society (provided it is conducted in the correct way) because…..
Arguably our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by our misinterpretations of, or failure to include, representative samples of persons with disabilities, the elderly, the disadvantaged and members of minority cultures, which these groups have suffered the consequences of.
Studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help to reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Psychologists have a social responsibility to carry this research out.
