Ethical Implications

Question 1

what does research have a duty to do?

1

Answer 1

research has a duty to balance the rights of individual participants against the need to produce research that will be useful to all of us

Question 2

what are ethical implications?

3

Answer 2

ethical implications concern the way that research impacts those taking part in research

as well as the way that findings are communicated to the public and how the findings are used

psychologists tend to focus particularly on the implications of findings that are socially sensitive

Question 3

what is socially sensitive research?

3

Answer 3

studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications

either directly for the participants in research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent

Question 4

what did Sieber and Stanley do?

4

Answer 4

part of the process of scientific research is the responsibility that scientists have for the way that their research is used

Sieber and Stanley (1988) produced a landmark paper on the issues related to socially sensitive research

they pointed out that the ethical guidelines produced by the APA referred to social implications of research but offered no advice about how to resolve such issues

their paper offered a way forward

Question 5

4 aspects of the research process where ethical issues and social consequences may occur

Answer 5

Sieber and Stanley identified 4 aspects in the research process at which ethical issues and social consequences may occur…..

• the research question
• conduct of research and treatment of participants
• the institutional context
• interpretation and application of findings

Question 6

the research question

2

Answer 6

simply asking a research question such as “are there racial differences in IQ?” or “is homosexuality inherited?” may be damaging

particularly to members of the particular racial group or sexual orientation being researched because it appears to add scientific credibility to the prevailing prejudice

Question 7

conduct of research and treatment of participants

2

Answer 7

the main concern is the confidentiality of the information collected

for example, if a participant confesses to a crime, should confidentiality be maintained?

Question 8

the institutional context

2

Answer 8

research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse or misunderstand the data produced

the media may obtain reports of such research and misreport the findings

Question 9

interpretation and application of findings

4

Answer 9

research findings may be used for purposes other than originally intended

for example, the development of IQ tests by psychologists was subsequently used to demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups of people

thus being used by some people to justify their racism or homophobia

it was also used to identify the feeble minded who could then be sterilised so they could not reproduce — this was practiced by the US in the early 20th century

Question 10

10 ethical issues in socially sensitive research

Answer 10

Sieber and Stanley also identified 10 types of ethical issue that relate especially to socially sensitive research….

• privacy
• confidentiality
• valid methodology
• deception
• informed consent
• equitable treatment
• scientific freedom
• ownership of data
• values
• risk/benefit ratio

Question 11

privacy

3

Answer 11

during the research process, a skilled investigator may extract more information from participants than they intended to give

some research may lead to social policies that are an invasion of people’s private lives

for example, AIDS research led to compulsory testing

Question 12

confidentiality

2

Answer 12

participants may be less willing to divulge information in the future if confidentiality is breached

this could mean that further related research would be compromised

Question 13

valid methodology

2

Answer 13

in cases of poor methodology and therefore invalid findings, scientists may be aware of these problems but the media and public may not be

meaning that poor studies might shape important social policy to the detriment of those groups represented by the research

Question 14

deception

2

Answer 14

includes self deception whereby the research may lead people to form untrue stereotypes such as believing that women are less good at maths

this then affects one’s own performance

Question 15

informed consent

1

Answer 15

potential participants may not always comprehend what is involved in the study

Question 16

equitable treatment

2

Answer 16

all participants should be treated in an equitable manner

resources that are vital to the participants’ well being, such as educational opportunities, should not be withheld from one group whilst being available to another

Question 17

scientific freedom

2

Answer 17

the scientist has a duty to engage in research

but they also have an obligation not to harm participants or the institutions in society

Question 18

ownership of data

3

Answer 18

there are problems with determining who owns the data

especially if the research has been sponsored by a university department or commercial organisation

some problems with determining ownership involve the public accessibility of the data

Question 19

values

2

Answer 19

psychologists differ in their orientation towards subjective, idiographic approaches and more objective, scientific approaches

sensitive issues arise when there is a clash in such values between the scientist and the recipient of the research

Question 20

risk/benefit ratio

2

Answer 20

risks or costs should be minimised and the benefits should always outweigh the costs of research

but problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits

Question 21

example: All Trials Campaign

7

Answer 21

psychologists rely on research into drug therapies to inform ways of treating mental disorders such as depression

most of such research is funded by pharmaceutical companies who have been accused of selective publication of data from such research

for example, it is likely that companies will not publish data that may be harmful to their sales

the All Trials Campaign has called for all research to be made public and that all research should be pre-registered

pre-registration includes stating the intended statistical analysis so that researchers cannot process data in a way which makes the outcome look more favourable to the drug

other issues include the fact that researchers often have to agree that institutional sponsors can censor the data produced

the association PhRMA (Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America) has defended itself by saying such disclosures would reduce patients’ privacy and result in the production of fewer new drugs

Question 22

x4 evaluation points

Answer 22

may disadvantage marginalised groups

the need to conduct socially sensitive research

inadequacy of current ethical guidelines

wider impact of research

Question 23

EVALUATION
may disadvantage marginalised groups

5

Answer 23

many groups in society have suffered the consequences of having been entirely excluded from research or being misrepresented when they are included

it can be argued that our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by our misinterpretations of and our failure to include representative samples of people with disabilities, the elderly, members of minority cultures, etc

this failure to accurately represent and research such groups also means that these groups then miss out on any of the potential benefits of research

research findings which may be invalid due to misrepresentation or total exclusion from research may then be used by certain people to justify their mistreatment of that group

or it be used to give scientific credibility to existing prejudices, which can lead to unfair and unjust social policy such as sterilisation of those considered feeble minded in the US

Question 24

EVALUATION
example of socially sensitive research being abused

2

Answer 24

in their controversial book, The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray (1994) used psychological research to argue that it was a waste of resources to improve the educational opportunities for disadvantaged groups

they argued that these groups are genetically destined to be low achievers so there is no point trying to change their situation as they’ll always remain low achievers, no matter how much you improve their educational opportunities

Question 26

EVALUATION
the need to conduct socially sensitive research

8

Answer 26

socially sensitive research should not be avoided simply because it is controversial

Sieber and Stanley believe that simply ignoring sensitive research is not a responsible approach to science, they suggest that avoiding controversial topics is also an avoidance of responsibility

psychologists should carry out such research, especially since it can have important applications

but steps must be taken to reduce the likelihood of others misusing the data from such studies

psychologists should actively take responsibility for what happens to their findings and should be aware that their results might lead to abuse and discrimination

they could do this by engaging with the public and policymakers to ensure that their findings are not misinterpreted or used in negative ways

they should promote the benefits of their research or how it can be used to improve people’s lives

for example, the BPS has a press centre which aims to promote evidence based psychological research to the media

Question 29

EVALUATION
inadequacy of current ethical guidelines

4

Answer 29

psychologists typically deal with ethical issues in research by developing strict guidelines for the conduct of their studies

ethical guidelines may protect the immediate needs of research participants but may not deal with all the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society

for example, the current ethical guidelines do not ask researchers to consider how their research may be used and abused by others, as recommended by Sieber and Stanley

therefore, the things that should be considered when conducting socially sensitive research have not yet permeated into professional practice

Question 31

EVALUATION
wider impact of research

4

Answer 31

there will always be some social consequences to participation in research

but with socially sensitive research there are the normal ethical issues as well as further issues

for example, there is also the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the participant’s family, co-workers or even the group that the participant represents such as women, the elderly, addicts and so on

it is therefore not sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of the individual in research, there needs to be further consideration of the likely impact of the research on the larger group that the participant represents