Establishment and Early Years of Weimar Republic (1918-24)

Question 1

Timeline of the abdication of the Kaiser

Answer 1

1918:
29th September - Ludendorff called for armistice negotiations
30th September - Kaiser promised political reform
1st October - Prince Max of Baden formed a new government
28th October - Kaiser introduced further reforms making the Chancellor accountable to the Reichstag
30th October - Naval mutiny at Wilhelmshaven
3rd November - Naval mutiny spread to Kiel
8th November - Revolt in Bavaria led to declaration of Bavarian Socialist Republic.
9th November - Declaration of a German Republic in Berlin and abdication of Kaiser

Question 2

Why was the Kaiser forced to abdicate?

Answer 2

• By end of Sep. 1918, the German army on the Western Front was on the brink of defeat. Its High Command, led by General Ludendorff, wanted to negotiate an armistice
• Ludendorff understood Allied leaders (especially Wilson) would not negotiate with autocratic monarch. Attempts in early October to reform German political sytsem by giving Reichstag more power, but these reforms did not go far enough to satisy Allies
• News of Germany being on brink of defeat shattered to morale of the German people, adding to discontent that had resulted from years of of hardship due to war effort. Workers in large cities began to threaten to strike, and in Munich (8th Nov) Bavarian Republic was declared
• Discontent among armed forces as soldiers and sailors lost respect for their offices. 3rd Nov - Mutiny at Kiel (main naval base).
• Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils established
• Threat of general strike in Berlin led to the collapse of Kaiser’s government (9 Nov). The Chancellor (Prince Max) resigned and the head of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), Friedrich Ebert, became the leader of the new government
• 9 Nov = General Groener told Kaiser army would not fight for him - Kaiser had little choice but to abdicate

Question 3

Timeline for “the struggle for power” (1818-19)

Answer 3

1918:
10th November - Ebert-Groener Pact
11th November - Armistice signed
6th December - Spartacist demonstrations in Berlin
23rd-24th December - Sailors’ revolt in Berlin put down by army

1919:
6th January - Spartacist revolt suppressed by army and Freikorps
19th January - Elections for the Constituent Assembly
July - Constitution of the new German Republic approved by Reichstag

Question 4

What happened after the Kaiser abdicated?

Answer 4

There was a struggle for power, in which different political groups vied for control to shape the future political, economic, and social structure of Germany.

Question 5

Who was Ebert and what did he have do to?

Answer 5

Was the leader of moderate socialist SPD, did not believe in violent revolution.
Wanted to build a democratic, parliamentary system of government.
First priority was to set up a Constituent Assmebly (would draw up new consistution)

Question 6

What was Germany like after the abdication of the Kaiser?

Answer 6

• In Berlin and other major cities, there was disorder as unemployed ex-soldiers and discontent workers involved in demonstrations, strikes, and violent clashes (with police and army)
• Workers’ and Soldier’s Councils saw themselves as rival powers and demanded radical and immediate change (confiscation of land from aristocracy, nationalisation of industries, and democratic control over army, civil service and judical system). Left-wing groups (USPD and Spatacists supported these demands.

Question 7

What was the role of the army in the “struggle for power” 1818-1919?

Answer 7

Role was crucial. The army’s new leader (General Groener) valued order and discipline - was determined to defeat any communist revolution. He agreed to pact with Ebert to support the government as long as the Chancellor promised to resist radical change to army

Question 8

Describe the Spartacist Uprisings

Answer 8

December 1918 - Spartacist uprising in Berlin stopped by army (army also crushed a sailors’ anti-government revolt)
January 1919 - Spartacists attemped an armed uprising agains the government in Berlin. Was led by Liebknecht and Luxemburg - insurgents occupied public buildings and newspaper offices. Only had limited support so was defeated by army and Freikorps in brutal street fighting.. Both leaders killed after being captured.

Question 9

What did the defeat of the Spartactists mean?

Answer 9

Paved way for electons of the Constituent Assembly: chose Ebert as President of the new German Republic and a coalition government formed by SPD, Centre and German Democratic parties. New consitiution drawn up.

Question 10

When was the Spartacist League founded?

Answer 10

1916 - a revolutionary and anti-war, breakaway group from the SPD, led by Liebknecht and Luxemburg.

Question 11

What was the Spartacist League’s aims?

Answer 11

• a republic controlled by workers’ and soldiers’ councils
• nationalisation of industry
• replacement of army by workers’ militias

Question 12

When was the Social Democratic Party (SPD) founded?

Answer 12

1875 - a mass socialist party led by Ebert and Scheidemann

Question 13

Who supported the Spartacist League in 1918?

Answer 13

Some workers joined their rallies and demonstrations; however, membership was small (c5000)

Question 14

When was the USPD founded?

Answer 14

1918 - a radical and anti-war breakaway from the SPD, led by Hugo Hasse

Question 15

What were the aims of the USPD?

Answer 15

• a republic ruled by Reichstag but cooperated with workers’ and soldiers’ councils
• nationalisation of industry
• reform of army

Question 16

How much support did USPD have in 1918?

Answer 16

Growing in strength, membership was around c300,000.

Question 17

What were the aims of the SPD?

Answer 17

• a republic ruled by Reichstag, with democratic freedoms and welfare rights
• some nationalisation of industry

Question 18

Who supported the SPD in 1918?

Answer 18

Had been the largest party in Reichstag in 1912 and had c1 million members in 1918 still appealed to many working-class voters.

Question 19

What was the role of the President?

Answer 19

The President was the Head of the State.
- Elected every seven years
- Appointed and dismissed ministers and could dissolve Reichstag and call new elections
- Supreme commander of armed forces
- Had reserve powers (Article 48) to rule without the Reichstag’s conseny in an emergency
- Appoints Chancellor

Question 20

Who was the role of the Chancellor?

Answer 20

• Had to have the support of at least half the Reichstag
• Proposed new laws to the Reichstag (to debate)

Question 21

What was the role of the Reichstrat?

Answer 21

• The second chamber, made up of representatives from the seperate states (Länder)
• Each state represented in proportion to its population, but no state to have more than 40% of the seats
• Could provide advice on laws but could be overridden by the Reichstag (provides advice to the Chancellor)

Question 22

What was the role of the Reichstag?

Answer 22

• Elected every four years
• Chancellor and ministers were responsible to the Reichstag
• Voted on budget; new laws required the approval of a majority of Reichstag deputies

Question 23

What were the strengths of the Constitution?

Answer 23

Was very democratic:
- All German men and women over age (20) had right to vote in elections for the President, the Reichstag, and in local elections
- Seats in the Reichstag were allocted by proportional representation = each party was allocated a share of deputies in the Reichstag in line with its share of the popular vote
- The Constitution guaranteed important individual rights, including equality before the law and rights of free speech, conscience, and to belong to trade unions and political parties
- Important issues could be put to a popular vote in a referendum

Question 24

What were the problems of the Consitution?

Answer 24

• Proportional representation led to the proliferation of small parties and made it very difficult for one party alone to form a government with a majority in the Reichstag; all governments in the Weimar Republic were coalition governments
• Article 48 of the Constitution gave the President emergency powers to rule the country by decree - without the need for Reichstag majority.
• Main weakness of the Constitution was that the army, civil service, and judiciary were not reformed and remained under the control of the aristocracy - therefore, key instituitons of the state were controlled by people who did not support democratic values

Question 25

What was the impact of the Versailles Settlement on Germany?

Answer 25

Treaty of Versailles punished Germany for its role in starting WWI and for damage to life and property caused by the war. It had a profound impact on German politics.

Question 26

What was the Peace Settlment of Versailles (1919)?

Answer 26

All Germans hated the Treaty of Versailles - most expected a negotiated peace settlement based on Wilson’s 14 points, but instead they were presented with what they sae as an unjust and dictated peace:
- the German delegation to the Peace Conference was not allowed to participate in the discussions about the terms of the treaty
- once the Allies had agreed on the terms, the German government was allowed to suggest only minor changes
- the German government was given 7 days to accept or reject. Rejection = resumption of fighting. German army High Command advised that military resistance would be futile
- divisions in Germany over whether to sign led to a political crisis and the fall of the Scheidemann government

Question 27

What were the terms of the treaty?

Answer 27

• Germany lost land to France, Belgium, Denmark, Poland, and Lithuania
• all of its overseas colonies were confiscated
• severe restrictions on German armed forces; the army limited to 100,000 men, navy was allowed only 6 battleships and no submarines, and was forbidden from having an air force
• had to pay reparations to Allies for damage caused by war
• Allied army was placed in Rhineland until Germany fulfilled ToV terms- German forces banned from the Rhineland
• Germany had to accept responsibility for starting the war: ‘war-guilt clause’
• permenant ban on Germany and Austria uniting as one country
• Germany not allowed to join LoN

Question 28

Why did the ToV unite some political opinon?

Answer 28

• it was a ‘dictated peace’ which had humiliated a proud country
• the ‘war-guild clause’ was unfair because Germans believed they were fighting a just war
• reparations were too harsh = would cause severe economic problems
• had been denied their right to national self-determination, whilst smaller nations (Poles and Czechs) had been respected.

Question 29

Why did the ToV divide some political opinion?

Answer 29

For pro-republican parties of the left and centre (SPD, DDP, and Centre):
- No alternative to signing as Germany too weak to resist
- Policy of ‘fulfilment’, adopted as a pragmatic response, meant Germany would outwardly comply with terms whilst trying to find ways to modify it or get around it

For anti-republican parties on right (DVP, DNVP) and Freikorps:
- Signing was another act in a series of betrayals that included the November Revolution of 1918 and the signing of the armisitice. Those involved became known as ‘November Criminals’, and the signing was a ‘stab in the back’
- Anti-republican parties and para-military groups committed to overthrowing of republic

Question 30

List of parties from extreme left to extreme right

Answer 30

1. KPD (German Communist Party): formerly the Spartacus League, committed to revolutionary overthrow of the republic
2. USPD (Independent Social Democratic Party): broke away from SPD in 1917 over its support for Germany’s war effot
3. SPD (Social Democratic Party): long established, links to trade unions, committed to political and social reform within WR
4. DDP (German Democratic Party): mostly middle class, reformist, supported WR
5. Centre Party: represented Catholic interests, strong support in Bavaria and Rhineland, supported WR
6. DVP (German People’s Party): mostly middle class support, opposed to WR but willing to join coalitions
7. DNVP (German National People’s Party): very conservative and nationalist, supported by landowners and some businessmen, opposed WR

Question 31

What were the reactions abroad to ToV?

Answer 31

Treaty drawn up by Allies, but they did not agree about its impact.
France: widespread feeling that Germany had been treated leniently, determination to strictly enforce ToV
USA: widespread feeling that Germany had been unfairly treated, that USA should not continue to be involved in Europe’s squabbles
Britain: general satisfaction that Germany had been weakened as a great power, but reservations about fairness and wisdom of ToV

Question 32

What were the financial problems in the aftermath of the war?

Answer 32

Serious debt in state finances - partly due to war as wartime governments had financed the war effort by borrowing and printing more money. Debt grew and value in currency declined.
This is because policy based on belief that Germany would win the war and recoup its losses by making its defeated enemies pay.

Question 33

How did the government make the financial problem worse?

Answer 33

Raising taxes and/or reduced expenditure to reduce debt would have been unpopular and risked alientating support for the new Republic. Therefore taxes were not increased, and spending was increased.
Governments continued to print more money and to borrow more.
This increased inflation to rise. Prices quadrupled between 1919-20.

Question 34

What were the positive outcomes of inflation?

Answer 34

Many politicians and businessmen thought inflation was beneficial as it stimulated investment and economic growth, and government debt became less of a burden.
Devaluation of the mark meant that Germany’s exports became cheaper and foreign trade boomed. Unemployment kept low.

Question 35

What was the impact of reparations?

Answer 35

In 1921, the Allied Reparations Commission set level of reparations at $6.6 billion, to be paid in annual instalments.
- Politically, demand in 1921 that Germany accept the terms of the Allied Reparations Commission’s report provoked political crisis in germany and led to the resignation of the Fehrenback government - Once again Germany divided
- Economically, payment of reparations exacerbated Germany’s debt and inflation. German governments in 1922 tried to negotiate a suspension of reparation payments for three years but the French would not agree.

Question 36

What was the hyperinflation crisis?

Answer 36

1923
Inflation high beginning of 1923 due to reparations/government printing more money.
The Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr caused inflation in Germany to spiral out of control and reach a level of hyperinflation in Oct-Nov 1923.
1. Jan: French and Belgian forces occupied Germany’s main industrial area in the Ruhr valley to extract reparation payments in the form of goods.
2. Cuno government declared a policy of passive resistance to the occupation so workers in the area went on strike. The wages of the striking workers were paid by the government.
3. Tax revenue for government was reduced.
4. Many goods in Germany were in short supply, further increasing prices.
5. The government printed more money to cover its debts.

Question 37

Timeline of Social Welfare Benefits

Answer 37

1919:
The working day was limited to a maximum of 8 hours.
Health insurance was extended to include wives, daughters, and the disabled.
Aid for injured war veterans became the responsibility of national government; aid for war widows and orphans was increased.

1922:
All local authorities had to set up offices with responsibility for child protection.

Question 38

What was social welfare like in Germany?

Answer 38

Under the Weimar Constitution, every German citizen had the right to work or welfare. The government extended the welfare system but the huge cost placed an additional burden on government finances. Large proportion of money printed (which led to hyperinflation) was to pay for welfare benefits.

Question 39

What was the social impact of hyperinflation?

Answer 39

Money became worthless, and commerce was severely disrupted.

Question 40

Who were the ‘winners’ of hyperinflation?

Answer 40

• Black-marketeers
• Those with debts, morgages, and loans
• Enterprising business people who borrowed, the repaid when the currency devalued further
• Long-term fixed renters
• People who had foreign currency
• Farmers

Question 41

Who were the ‘losers’ of hyperinflation?

Answer 41

• Pensioners, including war widows
• Those who had bought war bonds
• Landlords of fixed-rent properties
• Unskilled workers
• Small-business owners
• The long-term sick, as medical care rose
• Many experienced malnutrition

Question 42

What was the challenge from the left?

Answer 42

The Spartacists aimed for a communist revolution in Germany - they believed that the Nov 1918 revolution had been betrayed by Ebert and the SPD. The Spartacists and the KPD attempted a number of armed revolts

Question 43

What was the series of armed revolts by the Spartacists from 1919-24?

Answer 43

The Spartacists armed an uprising in Berlin (Jan 1919), which was brutally stopped by the army and Freikorps.
March 1919 - Spartacists attempted another armed uprising in Berlin, and a communist government was set up in Bavaria. Both were suppressed.
March 1920 - general strike in Berlin helped defeath the Kapp Putsch. KPD formed Red Army and seized control of the Ruhr, leading to armed clashes with the army and Freikorps.
Other short-lived, left-wing revolts occurred in 1920 in Halle, Dresden, Saxony, and Thuringia.
March 1921 - KPD tried to stage a revolution, beginning with a rising in Saxony and Hamburg. Disruption spread to Ruhr and Hamburg, but risings were crushed.
1923 - (during hyperinflation) a wave of strikes occurred in Saxony and Hamburg.
All revolts failed or were ruthlessly crushed, but they engendered a fear of communism among the middle-classes, driving many to support right-wing parties.

Question 44

What was the challenge from the right?

Answer 44

Many right-wing nationalist groups that were hostile to the republic, but they did not share the same objectives.
Nationalist ideas had support among conservatives (landowners, industrialists, military officers, civil servants, and judges) but also from ex-soldiers - many ex-soldiers joined paramilitary groups (such as the Patriotic Leagues, which carried out assassinations on left wing opponents.
2 attempts by right-wing nationalists to overthrow the republic.

Question 45

What were political assassinations?

Answer 45

The Patriotic Leagues (formed from ex-Freikorps units) had the support of officers in the German army and were dedicated to killing left-wing politicians and those associated with ToV.
1919-23 - they carried out 354 political assassinations, whilst the left only killed 22.
Although law was strengthened in 1922 to ban extremist groups and severely punish political assassins, right-wing judges did not apply the law evenly = only one right-wing assassin was executed, compared to 10 left-wing assassins.

Question 46

High-profile victims of political assassinations:

Answer 46

• Hugo Hasse: leader of USPD, was gunned down in front of Reichstag (Oct 1919)
• Matthias Erzberger: had led the German delegation to Versailles, shot (Aug 1921)
• Walther Rathenau: foreign minister who had participated in signing of ToV, shot (June 1922)

Question 47

What was the Kapp Putsch?

Answer 47

Berlin March 1920
Armed revolt against government by Freikorps units.
1. The army ordered to disband two Freikorps units (according to ToV) in Feb 1920.
2. General Luttwitz refused to disband one unit and marched his troops to Berlin.
3. Luttwitz was supported by Wolfgang Kapp, a DNVP deputy in the Reichstag, who attempted to overthrow the elected government.
4. Ebert’s government withdrew to Dresden for safety and ordered the army to crush the putsch, which its commanders refused to do.
5. The putsch collapsed after four days; it failed to win widespread support, its leaders were divided, civil servants refused to obey its orders, and trade unions in Berlin organised a general strike.

Question 48

What did the Kapp Putsch show?

Answer 48

The depth of hositility towards the republic among army officers and among the judges who showed leniency towards those arrested in the aftermath.
Although the republic survived, it showed that its foundations were weak.

Question 49

What was the Munich Putsch?

Answer 49

Beer Hall Putsch, Munich, November 1923.
An attempt by the NSDAP (led by Hitler) to seize power in Bavaria - led to a march on Berlin to overthrow this government.
8th November 1923 - Hitler and his stormtroopers (SA) took over Munich Beer Hall (where right-wing political meeting was taking place), and forced State Commissioner (von Kahr) and local army commander (von Lossow) to agree to join march on Berlin.

Question 50

What caused the Munich Putsch?

Answer 50

• Occupation of Ruhr by French and Belgian forces in 1923 = anti-French feeling and high degree of national unity. When government abandoned policy of passive resistance in September - nationalist right was outraged (seen as act of betrayal).
• Many middle-class people (who believed in virtues of hard work, careful spending, and saving) had values and confidence ruined by hyperinflation crisis. Hyperinflation damaged middle-class confidence in government and republic as a whole.
  In Bavaria, a right-wing state government declared a state of emergency and nationalists agitated for a ‘march on Berlin’ to overthrow federal government.
  One of leading figures in this agitation was Hitler, the leader of the NSDAP.

Question 51

How did the Putsch end?

Answer 51

failed because Hitler failed to secure support of the police, and the army commander changed sides.
Was fired on by police and Hitler was arrested.
Nazis banned and Hitler imprisoned (but only for nine months).

Question 52

How many coalition governments were there?

Answer 52

10 between Feb 1919-Nov 1923.
Only one lasted longer than a year.

Question 53

Why were coalition governments so unstable?

Answer 53

• proportional representation = many small parties gained representation in Reichstag.
• no one party ever gained enough seats to command a majority in Reichstag.
• many parties of left and right were dedicated to overthrow Weimar Republic.
• time of social and political upheaval, society became more polarised, and more extreme parties on left and right gained support.
• moderate, pro-republic parties had to compromise and work together to ensure stable coalitions, they frequently failed to do this.

Question 54

What was the state of the Weimar Republic by 1924?

Answer 54

1919-24:
economic, social, and political challenges.
stable government difficult to achieve.
had been a number of attempts by left and right to overthrow republic.
The army, police, judges and civil servants, whose responsibility it was to defend the state, could not be relied on to use their power in a fair way as they did not support the democratic values of the republic.
However, the republic did survive.