Establishing a dual policy

Question 1

Squads

Answer 1

Violence of squads provided basis for fascist strength and a possible means to overthrow parliament and seize power through force. But Mussolini still had hope he could become PM through parliamentary deals. This dualistic approach was complicated by the difficult balancing act Mussolini had to make between radical, revolutionary members of PNF and the more conservative who wanted power through parliament.

Question 2

July 1921

Answer 2

END OF SQUADRISTI VIOLENCE: Mussolini favoured conservatives at first, so called for end to squadristi violence as the communist revolution threat faded and middle class would question why violence continued.

Question 3

August 1921

Answer 3

PACT OF PACIFICATION: Signed by Mussolini with socialist trade union and PSI members. He said pact was necessary to bring political and social peace to Italy, but real reasons was political manoeuvring (hoped liberals and Catholics would come to a deal to stop him working with socialists).

Question 4

Issue

Answer 4

Until October 1921, fascism was a movement, not a party. Multiple squads had loyalty to ras and were funded at a local level. Pact of Pacification was an attempt to assert Mussolini’s dominance over fascism and force ras into his political direction. Three most powerful ras bosses condemned pact and meetings of squadristi held to call for an end of the socialists.

Question 5

18 August 1921

Answer 5

MUSSOLINI RESIGNS: Mussolini asserted if squadrismo were not prepared to follow his direction, he would resign as fascist leader. Without him, fascists lacked unity or direction, ras unable to work together to formulate policy. This strengthened his position; he was crucial to the party.

Question 6

November 1921

Answer 6

PNF CONFERENCE: Mussolini was skilful at buying off opponents and gaining loyalty. At conference, fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted to suppler Mussolini as leader and confirm movement into an official party. Without him, they lacked vision, charisma and unity. Grandi and Balbo asked d’Annunzio to lead, he refused. Mussolini had won victory over the ras who were now clearly subordinate to him. PNF programme confirmed squadristi were under party control, not ras.

Question 7

Pact of Pacification

Answer 7

Mussolini was forced to drop the Pact of Pacification (By October 1921, even Mussolini believed in power through violence). The squads were now more formally organised into ‘cohorts’ under the command of ‘consults’ who were organised under zone commanders.

Question 8

1922 spring

Answer 8

From spring, fascist violence expanded. Blackshirts attacked areas with socialist councils. Towns in northern Italy fell to fascists. Inadequate response from liberal government.

Question 9

February 1922

Answer 9

BONOMI’S GOVERNMENT FELL: Replaced by Luigi Facta (weak). Violence surged, ras lead squads to destroy houses of socialists on east coast.

Question 10

September 1922

Answer 10

Squads had taken over areas around Rome; ready to take on capital. Government did nothing to stop violence, the attempted July strike played in fascists’ hands. Kept public services running with volunteers and said they were saving nation from communist threat. Squads launched new attacks in Genoa, Milan, Livorno, murdering socialists, burning offices. May-October 1922, fascists became the de facto government in many provinces.

Question 11

Fascist violence

Answer 11

Weakened Facta (unable or unwilling to stop). 1922: PNF had 320,000 members, 500,000 workers joined fascist trade unions.

Question 12

dual policy

Answer 12

Mussolini favoured his dual policy, pursuing it through Sept and Oct 1922, he promised if fascists were accepted within a government coalition, he would pursue a moderate conservative policy, back monarchy, refuse taxes; while encouraging squads to attack Bolzano and Trent (these towns were held by conservative liberals- he was challenging the government itself.

Question 13

parliamentary response

Answer 13

Parliament was divided on how to respond; Orlando and Nitti called for a coalition with fascism, but they both hoped coalition would help them become PM and refused a solution where that was no the case. Key liberals, including Giolitti, were more concerned with stopping their rivals becoming PM than avoiding fascist revolution. Giolitti refused to travel to Rome to help Facta’s government unless he was offered to be PM by king. Mussolini encouraged the division, separately promising Nitti, Salandra, Facta and Giolitti they would be PM in a fascist coalition governmen