Essentials of Research in the Health and Medical Sciences

Question 1

Why are qualitative studies different to quantitative studies?

Answer 1

They are based on very different philosophical questions.

Question 2

What are the ontological assumptions that underpin qualitative research?

Answer 2

Qualitative researchers embrace the idea of multiple realities

Conduct studies with intent of reporting these multiple realities

Evidence includes use of multiple quotes based on actual words of participants presenting different perspectives.

Question 3

What are the epistemological assumptions that underpin qualitative research?

Answer 3

Dualism between researchers and research participants refuted: Researchers and participants are interactively linked.

Researchers try to get as close as possible to participants in study

Research findings emerge from the interaction between the research participant and the researcher

Question 4

What are the axiological assumptions that underpin qualitative research?

Answer 4

Facts and values are not separate. Researchers and research being undertaken are inseparable. Researchers position themselves in a study.

Question 5

What are the methodological assumptions that underpin qualitative research?

Answer 5

Assuming multiple realities and an epistemological imperative to be close to partcipants methodologically research needs to be undertaken using methods that facilitate this.

Question 6

How is sampling and recruitment undertaken in qualitative research?

Answer 6

Selection of information-rich cases for studying in depth.

All participants have experience and/or knowledge of what is being researched.

Question 7

What common sampling strategies are used for qualitative studies?

Answer 7

Maximum variation (eg difference between people that recover quickly and slowly)

Homogenous (having a homogenous group gives lots of information about the experience)

Stratified (groups can be made based on the characteristics of participants and how that relates to different shared characteristics)

Snowball (Initial group of respondents suggest more participants and this continues with the suggested people; have multiple entry points in initial group)

Triangulated (Multiple forms of sampling strategies used simultaneously)

Question 8

What size sample is needed?

Answer 8

In qualitative research it is difficult to accurately predict what the sample size will be.

Sample size is large enough when it can support the desired analyses.

Qualitative studies usually contain few participants (around 40) the number of participants is less important than the richness of the data.

Question 9

What is data saturation?

Answer 9

Collecting data leads to same information over and over again.

Data collection and analysis should occur simultaneously.

Question 10

How can a qualitative study be ensured to be rigorous?

Answer 10

No one check list is used to ensure rigour in qualitative studies. The general criteria for rigor is:

1. Credibility (method must be relatable and plausible for those involved in the study)
2. Dependability (whether or not another researcher who has similar methodolical training and rapport will come to the same conclusion)
3. Transferabliity (Include enough information for the data to be usable in other settings)
4. Confirmability (meaning must be plausible)
5. investigator triangulation (Analyse data as a team or have regular discussions among analysts)

Question 11

How is a thematic analysis conducted?

Answer 11

Immersion in the data (know content of data very well)

Open coding - Important concepts (Comparing text with text)

Clustering of concepts - categories

Abstracting and linking categories - Themes

Question 12

What is the constant comparison approach?

Answer 12

Comparing all data such as:

Segments of text such as words or phrases

Experiences related within an interview

Whole interviews

Data and knowledge

Data and other studies of similar issues

Aim - to develop external heterogeneity and internal homogeneity within categories of data

Question 13

How is open coding done?

Answer 13

Transcripts are read line-by-line.

Concepts are identified and coded. Questions asked about the data - Closely examining or interrogating it

Question 14

What is focused coding?

Answer 14

Organising the concepts into categories, examining and refining each category, and determining how it relates to other categories.

Question 15

What are the characteristics of categories used for focused coding?

Answer 15

Has a label/name

A key idea about which category is concerned

Segments of data

A set of criteria that demarcates the category in relation to other categories being used.

Question 16

How are categories that are used in focused coding refined?

Answer 16

In a way that ensures that categories are as comprehensive as possible. Telling us as much as possible about the data in that category.

This is done by intensive analysis focusing on one category at a time and identifying within each category what is important to the study and examining the way it is related to other categories.

Question 17

What is theoretical coding?

Answer 17

Focusing on the main ideas at an abstract level and examining their interrelation.

Question 18

What is mixed methods research?

Answer 18

A research approach which does 2 things:

Focusing on research questions that call for real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences.

Employing rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of constructs. This allows for us to draw on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research.

Question 19

What are quantitative methods’ strengths?

Answer 19

Ideal for measuring pervasiveness of ‘known’ phenomena, central patterns of association, or causality.

Question 20

What are the strengths of qualitative methods?

Answer 20

Allows for identification of previously unknown processes, explanations of why and how phenomena occur, and the range of their effects.

Question 21

How does mixed methods research combine data from qualitative and quantitative research?

Answer 21

The research question is answered using the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research

Question 22

How is data mixed in MMR?

Answer 22

It can be merged, connected, or embedded.

Question 23

How is mixing method chosen?

Answer 23

Based on the MM design.

Data collection: When a single survey asks both types of questions.

Data analysis: When qualitative data are converted or transformed into quantitative scores or constructs.

Data analysis and interpretation: When results of quantitative analyses are compared with themes from qualitative data

Question 24

Why is mixed methods research done?

Answer 24

Researchers may want to view issue from multiple perspectives

Contexualize information

More complete understanding of an issue

Develop a complementary picture

Compare, validate, and triangulate results

Provide illustrations of context for trends

Examine processes/experiences along with outcomes

Have one database build on another.

Question 25

What are the types of mixed methods designs?

Answer 25

Triangulation design (concurrent)

Explanatory design (Sequential)

Exploratory design (sequential)

Embedded (or nested) design

Question 26

How is embedded design experiment conducted?

Answer 26

Qualitative is done before, during and after the quantitiative analysis is being conducted. The results are then interpretted based on quantative results.