Essay Plan 1914-1967 Flashcards
British rule in India combined self-interest with an arrogant attitude of racial superiority towards the native population.’
Assess the validity of this view with reference to the years 1857 to c1900.
Intro- mention the mutiny in 1857
Support
most senior role in the government was always of British origin(Such as the viceroy) and all the highest government positions were also held by British elites. Whilst the Indian Civil Service did accept Indian applicants after 1858, they only made up 5% of the civil service by 1900. (Suggesting British superiority).
Although about one-third of India was ruled by Princely states by 1877. It could be argued that this was all in British self-interest, and not evidence of the British viewing the Indians as capable to lead themselves. For instance, the Princes were given civil service advisors so as to force loyalty to Britain, showing that the princes’ powers were somewhat false in light of the overarching British Rule. In other words, whilst the Princes were respaded, they would be forced to conform to what Britain believed was a superior foreign government.
Further evidence of British superiority can be seen in the way the British officials separated themselves from Indian society. Many high-ranking British civil servants migrated to high-altitude hill stations to find refuge from both the summer heat and what they thought to be an ‘unclean’ native population.
Against
However notable efforts had been made to help India. Britain had laid down 20,000 miles of railway track by 1900. This helped to reduce the effects of famine as food could be more easily distributed across India. Maintaining and implementing this infrastructure required labourers, which led to an increase in the number of job opportunities for local workers
Irrigation systems were also introduced which greatly assisted Indian farmers. By 1900 80,000 square miles had been irrigated. By investing this much time and money it could be suggested that British rule in India was simply not selfish, but had selfless elements within it.
Counter - it could be argued that the railway track expansion could also have been for British benefit. This is because the British were worried about Russian ambitions in Afghanistan, because they felt that if the Russians have control of Afghanistan it could led to the safety of India. Being threatened. Therefore through the tracks if they needed to, Indian soldiers could be sent there efficiently.
‘The end of the First World War unleashed anti-imperialist national movements that successive British governments were unable to understand or to control.’
Middle East
As a result of the First World war, Britain had gained control of mesopotamia. However there was opposition against British rule and conflict between ethnic groups. In 1920, the British intervened militarily when widespread muslim demonstration gained British rule in Baghdad turned into a full scale revolt. The kurds, in the North of Iraq, who wanted independence from iraq also rebelled.Although the British government struggled to resolve this situation in the short term. In the Long term resolved it and gained from it.
The Anglo-Iraqi treaty was signed in 1922. This confirmed Faisal I as king of Iraq. This solved the British problem their because he was a renowned muslim and respected by the people. Senior British advisors were nethertheless appointed to most government departments to ensure.
Ireland
As a result of the First world war the 3rd Home rule bill for Ireland in 1913 was never implemented. During the war the Irish volunteers prepared an armed rising against the British. This led to the an uprising in Dublin during the Easter of 1916.
However It could be argued that the British managed to control the uprising in Ireland. This is because in the short term they suppressed it, and very quickly. However they were also successfully in the long term. This is because they were able to completely stop the conflict in 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish treaty, which created the Irish free state. A self-governing dominion within the British empire.
India
At the outbreak of the war Indian’s had wholehearted entered the war to support the British with over 1.2million volunteers, compared to nations such as Australia no conscription was needed. However this did come at a price. The Indian hoped that this would bring a new perspective towards India and created the gateway for more autonomy. However when the British did not deliver it led to Indian nationalism becoming increasingly more vociferous and popular in the 1920s-1930s.
The British introduced the Rowlatt act in 1919 in the hopes that this would reduce the opposition to British rule. However this was counter productive and led to much more resistant and violent results, including the Amritsar massacre of April 1919.(although the British introduced the simon commission in 1929 to review the government of India act) Although nationalism grew negotiations on moves towards Dominion status increased, such as the round table conference from India in the early 1930s, However this failed. Although Britain was failing to suppress this, during the inter-war years it did not do much of a damage to Britain. This is because as WW2 started the nationalist suspended their protests in 1939 and supported the British.
‘In the first half of the twentieth century, for most British people the Empire was a source of national pride.’ 1900-1950.
Support
Exhibitions were staged, such as the wembley Exhibition of 1924 to which the British government contributed half the £2.2million cost. It advertised every country within the empire and a fun fair was also erected their. Exhibitions were intended to give visitors an experience of the British Empire in “miniature”. People’s around the empire were also displayed in ethnic villages designed to recreate the traditional lives and crafts of pre-colonial peoples. Over 17million people attended in 1924 and another 9 million in 1925.(over half of the British population)
- The emergence of the cinema as a mass entertainment was another source of imperial culture. Such as feature films as Sanders of the river in 1935 and the four features in 1939. Used the empire as an exotic and often undifferentiated backdrop for adventure. Signalling to the public that the empire was a place of excitements and playing out stories of adventure and bravery.
Against
In the first half of the 20th century, it seemed like the people in Britain were not interested in the empire and what it had to offer. This led to the British government wanting to use organisations to increase the support of the empire. For instance the introduction of the imperial marketing board in 1926. This was created to promote the consumption of Britain’s items that were produced in the empire. Although this could be seen as imperial indoctrination of the British people. Dominions argued that this did not have a substantial impact on exports. This did not create a sense of national pride towards the empire.
Emigration - This had a negative affect on how people viewed the British empire.
In recognition of the Empire’s war time contributions and with the hopes that citizens of the Dominions would return to the “Mother country” and contribute to the economy, the British government passed the British Nationality Act in 1948, giving citizenship and free entry into Britain from countries in the common wealth and the Empire. This led to the growth of immigration from people in the colonies, such as the carribeans in the 1950s. This led people in Britain to not view the empire as a source of pride, because they began to think that this immigration was causing them to lose their jobs or struggle to get one. It also called racial tensions between British people and the people that came from the colonies.
‘British reforms in India between the two World Wars were designed to avoid fundamental change in India’s status.’
Support
- Under the government of India act in 1919 the system of dyarchy was created this was an act to create a system of limited self- government. This gave indians more control over the government of India. This was not to cause a fundamental change in Indian society, but was simply to decrease the popular support of Indian nationalism and present a facade of change.
In 1935 the government of Indian act gave provinces more autonomy and increased the franchise from 7 million to 35 million. However despite this similar to in 1914 at the outbreak of WW1, Indians in WW2 had no choose going into the war.
In 1939 when members of Congress-controlled ministers in provinces resigned from office, in opposition to being forced into the war. The British therefore imposed direct rule, and death with independence protests against the war with severe repression. Presenting how despite the reforms indians still had no power, demonstrating how there was no fundamental change in Indian status.
Against
The simon commission in 1929-1930. This was introduced to review the government of India act in 1919 and advice on changes that should be made to improve it and make in better. For instance it suggested that the provinces should be given more power. Demonstrating how the British were introducing reforms to cause a change in India’s status.
The round table conferences- 1930 and 1931. This was held to discuss the future of Indian and how to move forward, providing ideas that could led to india getting more self governing. However no agreement was able to be reached, because the British rejected self-governing dominion status for india. Therefore suggesting that although they were willing to make changes to India, the British were not willing to cause a fundamental change.
To what extent did British policies towards its colonies, mandates and Dominions strengthen the British Empire in the inter-war years?
Strengthened
- The establishment of the commonwealth in 1931 and the statute of Westminster allowed dominions to gradually become fully independent while also retaining a ‘special relationship with Britain’- This strengthened Britain because they no longer have to spend money to keep these countries in the empire instead they can keep good relationships with little to no costs.
- The empire softened the impact of the great depression- This is because during the aftermath of the great depression, a much greater emphasis was placed on the importance of the empire. Most countries of the empire fixed the value of their currency to sterling, which allowed trade with the empire to be a great asset for Britain. British export with the empire in 1913 was 37.7% in 1934 it was 44%.
The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1922 confirmed Faisal I as king of Iraq, due to being a renowned Muslim, this was seen as the ideal compromise. As he was pro-British, Britain could continue their control over Iraqi affairs, while also controlling major military bases and having influence over the Iraqi Army, which Britain trained. This strengthened Britain because it gave them control over a strategically and economically vital region.
weakened
The Balfour declaration in 1917 declared that the British would support Palestine as the Jewish homeland. When the British-sponsored zionist commission arrived in Palestine in 1918, Muslim and Christian Arabs formed the Muslim-Christian Association and between 1918 and 1920, there were violent clashes between Arabs and Jews.- This weakened the British empire because due to being financially deprived of the first world war the British struggled to deal with the conflict they had created, ultimately weakening it.
Indian nationalism had become increasingly vociferous and popular in the 1920s and 1930s.In 1919 the British introduced the rowlatt Act, which would allow the authorities the power to arrest and imprison protesters- This had disastrous consequences because it led to the Amritsar massacre of 1919. - This weakened Britain in the short - term because it caused instability in an economically vital region in the British empire.
However what this argument fails to acknowledge is that in 1939, the British restricted the number of Jew immigrants coming to Palestine to 15,000 per year in order to maintain a Palestinian majority- this helped reduces the tensions that were growing. Also in India when world war 1 started in 1939, protests against the British empire stopped, therefore the Indians were still loyal to the British and wanted British victory, mainly because they would rather be ruled by Britain than another imperial power.
To what extent did Britain’s economic relationship with its Empire change during the years 1914 to 1939?
Change
Point 1 - there was a relative growth in British trade with its Empire throughout 1914 to 1939 (eg through analysis of trade statistics)
Evidence 1 – From 37% in 1914 to 45% in 1934 (exports). From 25% in 1914 to 35% in 1934 (British imports)
Analysis 1 – Could be understood as Britain’s economic relationship became closer following WW1 in 1914 as
Point 2 – Britain’s economic relationship with Empire changed greatly as seen in two turning points throughout the time period.
Evidence 2 – In the 1920s, Britain tried to recreate the economic system which had existed prior to 1914, thus they returned to the gold standard in 1925 in order to stabilise international trade. However, in the 1930s the Great Depression hit which caused a much greater emphasis on the importance of Empire for British commerce, and imports from the Empire increased. Britain was again forced to abandon the gold standard in 1931 but trade with the Empire in sterling proved a great asset.
Analyse 2 – Therefore, Britain’s economic relationship with its Empire clearly changes through two distinct turning point in this period. The first stage of using the old economic system gave no special preference to Empire, thus the relationship was not particularly Strong. However, by the the aftermath of the Great Depression the economic relationship became much closer with Empire.
Point 3 – British attitudes shifted towards a growing emphasis on the importance of Britain’s economic relationship with the Empire.
Evidence 3 - Introduced in 1926, the Empire Marketing Board was aimed at increasing public buying from Empire through promotion of its goods. It conducted advertisements of these goods
Analysis / Counter Argument - but many of the Dominions asserted that the posters / ads had little effect on their trade with Britain. It was also branded as propaganda by an increasing amount of people. (analysis – therefore this was not particularly improving Britain’s economic relationship with its Empire despite a growing emphasis on the importance of Britain’s economic relationship with the Empire)
Continue
Point 1 – Fundamentally, the economic relationship between British and its Empire was similar through 1914-39.
Evidence 1 – (specific item % from Empire compared to world) From 1913 to 1934 British imports of Tea from Empire remained at around 87%, Jute remained at 99%. British manufactures continued to be exported to Empire at a steady rate, cotton goods from 1913 to 1934 remained at around 52%.
Analysis 1 – Ultimately, this was just a continuation of the trading relationship Britain had with Empire since the 19th century. It supplied foodstuffs and raw materials to Britain, sure, there was an increase in the quantity of these items but the bottom line is that the Empire’s trading relationship with Britain fundamentally changed little as it essentially remained as a market for manufactured goods and source of imported goods.
Evidence 2 - Britain’s control of the mechanics of imperial trade may be seen to have remained intact, despite the transition from the Gold Standard to the sterling area; shipping, banking and financial services may be seen as sectors of continuity
To what extent were different social groups in Britain affected by the Empire in the years 1914 to 1947?
Upper-Middle Class-
Evidence 1 – Members of the affluent middle classes with family members employed in colonial service, or others involved in trade with Empire, were more natural to support it. Such as Alfred Milner. Furthermore, The historical study of Empire became established with special professorships in Imperial History at Cambridge (1919).
Analysis – This level of university was almost exclusively comprised of upper-middle class peoples. It is significant as it trained colonial servants to enter Empire as it had been for over 100 years. Empire continued to provide opportunities for the upper class peoples.
Evidence 2- The British upper class had significant political influence n shaping policies related to the empire. For example Evelyn Baring, say of the aristocratic Egypt Evelyn Baring would then became governor of Rhodesia from 1942.
Women
Evidence - Political activism; The empire also played a role in the rise of feminist and anti-colonial political activism in Britain. Women’s suffrage and women’s rights movements were growing during the 1940s , and many feminist saw the connection betweens between imperialism, patriarchy. Some women also became involved in anti-colonial activism such as the struggle against apartheid in South Africa in the 1960s.
Women often affected by imperial advertising for instance in 1926 Empire Marketing Board promoted the British public to buy goods from the empire.
- However, despite this advertising campaigns many of the dominions asserted that these advertisement had little effect on their exports.
Working class. - Working class conscripted to support the Empire during the first and second world wars. Between 1916 and 1918, around 2.5million men were conscripted into the armed forces many of whom were from the working class. Many working class men were sent to fight in colonial territoires, including Egypt, India and mesopotamia which mirrors the treatment of working class men during the second world war as well.
British reforms in India between the two World Wars were designed to avoid fundamental change in India’s status’. Assess the validity of this view.
Agree
Evidence 1- In 1919, the British released the Government of India Act which established a dyarchy which gave Indians some control over government, education and the health service. While this appeared to be an act made to prepare Indians for independence, it was a carefully crafted example of divide and rule. The Indians would have little experience dealing with these affairs, therefore they would likely make errors and the Indian people would call for the British again. There is a continuation of the divide and rule in the 1935 Government of India Act. This extended the franchise from 7 – 35 million and broadened the amount of political parties. This would reduce the risk of a dominant party emerging to count the British therefore it was designed to maintain British rule for a long as possible.
Evidence 2 – Following the increase in nationalist sentiment, two ‘Round Table’ conferences were established in 1930 and 1931. These were peace conferences organized by the British Government and Indian political personalities to discuss constitutional reforms in India.
Analyse 2 - This appears to be a proposal for reforms for a change in India’s status however both meetings failed as the British still were not willing to make the most fundamental change in India’s status – self-governing dominion status. They still doubted their capabilities and wanted to retain control because of India’s economic and strategic importance. Therefore, there was little change in the intention behind the reforms.
Point 3 – response of repression to Indian nationalism/protest revealed resolve
Evidence 3 – 1919 Amritsar Massacre. Rioting in the Punjab led the British army to fire upon a crowd of Indians protesting at the arrest of nationalist leaders. Around 800 Indians were murdered. Could also use 1919 Rowlett Act as its key purpose was to strike down nationalist uprising (gave greater powers to authorities to arrest and imprison anyone who spoke against the British)
Disagree
Evidence 1 – Cripps Mission in 1942. Churchill recognised the vulnerability of Empire in India and sent a Labour member to promise Indians full Dominion status.
Analyse 1 – This is certainly a reform which was designed to bring a fundamental change in India’s status. That being said, this was only released in the period shortly after WW2 had started and the Empire was extremely vulnerable in India. Therefore, it could be held as another policy aimed at preventing fundamental change as dominion status was a compromise in the face of full independence.
Evidence 2 – Simon Commision? - 1929 - proposed provinces should be given more power – however, power still held by Viceroy in areas of defence, foreign affairs ,internal affairs, security – So this was little change in the bigger picture
‘The contraction of the British Empire was started by the First World War, but accelerated by the Second’ Assess the validity of this view.
(assess degree of contraction after WW1 and WW2 to help)
The First World War was largely followed by the expansion of the Empire and a small degree of contraciton, however, the Second World War this contraction was accelerated on a major scale.
Better arrangement would be Europ, African and the Middle East for your three para. This is the framework just use the evidence here to support
WW1
Point 1 - Opposition to the war and the self-confidence created by WWI threatened the future of the Empire.
Evidence 1 – Ireland – because of the WW1, Irish volunteers chose to strike against the British. This resulted in the 1916 Easter Uprising which was quickly suppressed, but guerilla resistance ensued until 1921 when the British signed the Anglo-Irish treaty, creating a self-governing Free Irish State which was granted dominion status.
Analysis 1 – This was the first real sign of Empire’s contraction as Britain’s oldest colony was lost. This wasn’t catastrophic for the British, however, as the Northern Irish opted to remain under British sovereignty.
Evidence 2 – Egypt – As the Ottoman Empire, which had previously controlled Egypt, was on the losing side of the war – the British could establish it as a Protectorate in 1914, expanding the Empire. However, turning point when WW1 impacts hit. Sir Henry McMahon in Egypt stated in 1917 that “the prices of food have soared to unprecedented heights” and thus the food situation in Egypt was critical. This caused starvation which led to nationalist Zaghlul to spearhead the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, as it came to be known, which marked a turning point in Egyptian history and is widely regarded as the beginning of the country’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule as the whole nation revolted. However, by 1922 Egypt was granted formal independence.
Counter Argue 1 – That being said, the British contraction was somewhat ostensible as Egypt continued to be a client state until 1954.
Evidence 3 – Iraq – Britain ruled Iraq as a mandated territory for 12 years after 1920, providing British protection for a monarchical rule of the Hashemites. However, following the 1916 McMahon-Hussein Correspondence in which the British promised they were willing to support Arab independence in exchange for Arab support against the Ottomans during WW1. This was agreed, yet undermined by the Briitsh Sykes-Picot agreemen, causing a rising sense of nationalism. The country descended into instability, the Kingdom of Iraq was granted independence in 1932.
Analyse 3 – It could be argued that this contraction was therefore brought on by WW1. However, under the new King Faisal Britain retained close economic and military ties with Britain, which retained air bases in the country.
Therefore, there was contraction which started following WW1, but this wasn’t to a great degree.
WW2
Evidence 1 – The war left the British under acute pressure in Palestine. By 1939, with war imminent and fears of an Italian attack on Egypt, Britain called for a Palestinian state in which Jews currently living in the country could enjoy the right to a ‘national homeland’ which outraged the Jews. Furthermore, during 1941 and 1945, the policy of the holocaust which was aimed at murdering all the Jewish population in Europe led to an exodus of Jews arriving in Palestine. This caused great domestic tension, and by 1945 the Arab-Jewish relations were so bad that the British were forced to hand this problem over to the United Nations.
Analyse 1 – Therefore, WW2 accelerated the contraction of Empire here as it led to British policymaking that increased resistance to the point where it had t Palestine had to be abandoned.
Evidence 2 – During WW2, Burma was occupied by the Japanese but when the Burmese Anti-Fascist Organisation and Aung San-led Burmese National Army realised that their independence was more likely to be achieved with the British, they worked alongside them to rid the country of Japanese in 1945. By 1946, mounting civil disobedience and the increasingly ungovernability of the country prompted the appointment of a more liberal Hubert Rance, who not only admitted Aung Sang intop the Executive Council but virtually placed him in charge of it. By 1946, PM Attlee declared that the government were not willing or able to commit sufficient troops in the country, it became independent in 1948.
Point 3 - The financial impact of the Second World War and the declining economic importance of India, played a role in Britain’s decision to leave India.
Evidence 3 – Following WW2, India suffered from great inflation and shortages which meant they could no longer be the great market for British cotton exports as they once had been, so the cost of holding onto it would massively outstrip any economic benefits. The Labour government realised this in 1945 which contributed towards their reasons for declaring withdrawal from India and granting independence in 1947.
‘In the years 1947 to 1967, Britain was forced to leave Africa.’ Assess the validity of this view
Agree -
Point 1 – In Egypt, Britain was forced as they did not intend to leave anytime soon. the Suez Crisis of 1956 demonstrates Britain trying, and failing, to keep a presence in Egypt
Evidence 1 - Under the 1954 Anglo-Egyptian Agreement, the British agreed to remove troops gradually from the canal zone. However, by 1956 after Nasser nationalized the Suez. In response the British secretly hatched the ‘Protocol of Sevres’ plan with the French and Israelis which resulted in Britain deploying 1000s of troops to defend the ‘security’ of the Suez Canal.
Analysis 1 – This is significant as the canal never was at real threat, the plan created a threat by engaging the Israelis in battle with the Egyptians to justify Anglo-French intervention. Therefore, Britain clearly wanted to maintain control of the Suez Canal and thus Egypt. It was only until the USA refused to support sterling in the currency crisis did the British leave, thus they were forced.
Point 2 - The use of violence by Britain led to calls for decolonisation.
Evidence 2 – Between 1952 and 1956, the British detained 81,000. Many detainees were interrogated and the camps in which they were held had horrendous conditions. In 1959, the East African Standard reported on these conditions which suggested ten men had died from drinking contaminated water.
Analyse 2 – This echoes Emily Hobhouse’s reports on the Boer War camps 50 years prior. It similarly caused condemnation and and highlighted that colonial governments were poorly equipped to deal with these movements which led to apprehension. The use of violence by Britain resulted in international and domestic condemnation which put Britain under pressure to decolonize. Furthermore, the British understood that such an event could not reoccur in the later years of the 1950s as they were economically reliant on the USA, they could not longer risk suffering USA condemnation.
Point 3 – The Nationalist movement in Nigeria forced their independence from Britain.
Evidence 3 – Nigeria suffered from great religious and ethnic divisions. Nationalist pressure caused the MacPherson Constitution of 1951 which created a National Council of Ministers answerable to 185 seats in a House of Representatives. This stimulated the growth of Nigerian political parties which represented these different ethnicies and religions.
Analyse 3 – This is significant as caused greater tensions between these groups and thus greater internal political instability. This resulted in the British making more and more concessions to these groups and more and more power was devolved to the various regional governments. Therefore, this climate effectively forced Britain into a position which meant that it was easier just to grant independence. In 1960
Final point – ultimately, British decision to reject 1957 EEC membership, which aimed to foster economic integration with its European members, and suggests that Britain continued to rely on Empire. The believed in their superiority, and a notion that they did not ‘need’ the assistance of the other countries but instead they could rely on the Empire for this support.
Disagree -
Point 1 – Following WW2 British had to reassess their decisions relating to the efficiency of Empire, leading to optional withdrawal.
Evidence 1 – By 1947, after the Second World War, Britain was in a poor economic state, so they had to make strong choices regarding spending priorities. In East Africa, Tanganika, the British invested £49 million in 1948 into a development scheme to make profits. This failed, lowering the hopes of surrounding peoples and causing an increase in nationalist sentiment.
Analysis 1 - Due to their understanding of its low economic value and the growing nationalist movement, they contiously granted concessions over the following years. However, in Malaya rubber was proving to be a large earner for the British, and here they were extremely reluctant to let it go, which is significant in understanding how economic benefits fuelled reasons for decolonisation.
Point 2 – It could be argued that violent nationalist groups themselves pushed the British out.
Evidence 2 – The previously mentioned Mau Mau nationalists escalated murders in 1952, using extreme violence against the white settlers which caused the British to call for a State of Emergency and placed Britain in an awkward moral position.
Analyse 2 – This appears to be a successful step towards pushing the British out of the country, however, the British responded by killing 10-11,000 of these nationalist uprisers. This is significant as it indicates that if Britain had wanted to stay in a colony, they were able to.
Point 3 – Winds of change speech indicated that the British government were choosing to leave.
Evidence 3 – In 1960 PM Macmillan made the Winds of Change speech which conveyed decolonisation as a collaborative policy with the nationalist movements to prepare them for independence and that this was a gift.
Analyse 3 / Counter Argue – However, this isn’t an accurate representation of how the British managed decolonisation. The pace set by the British was usually far too slow for the nationalists, which often compelled the British to move much faster than originally intended. This can be evidenced by the progress under Sir Andrew Cohen. In 1947 he produced the Cohen Report setting out a new direction for colonial policy through slow and gradual reform. However, by 1952 he was Governor of Uganda and by 1962 Uganda was independent. He noted that this was much faster than he had originally hoped for, and definitely much slower than the British had planned for. Many other African nations followed suit at this rate. Therefore, they were forcing decolonisation at a much greater rate than the British wanted.
‘In the years 1947 to 1967 Britain lost all interest in its empire’ Assess the validity of this view.
Disagree
Evidence 1 – In 1957, the EEC was founded which was aimed at fostering economic integration with its European members to strengthen the participants economy. Britain showed no interest in joining this group whilst all of the other major powers in Europe signed to join.
Analyse 2 – This is significant in understanding how Britain’s interest in Empire continued, as if they weren’t interested in this group, they must have been confident in relying on the Empire.
Evidence 2 (extension of first point) - Britain showed great interest by promoting colonial development schemes. In 1948 the Colonial Development Corporation was established to co-ordinate major projects and develop self-sustaining agriculture. By 1956, the British colonies within Empire were exporting £1485 million worth of goods.
Analyse 2 – This is significant as it clearly shows a reliance on Empire for trade and thus a continuation of interest as they sought to engage in as much trade as possible to compete with the EEC.
Point 3 – The process of decolonisation was reluctant on behalf of the British as they promoted economic ventures and resisted nationalism in the process.
Evidence 3 – East Africa - In Tanganyika the British invested £49 million in 1948 into a development scheme to make profits. This failed, lowering the hopes of surrounding peoples and causing an increase in nationalist sentiment. This, combined with the long-simmering Kikuyu grievances at their treatment from white settlers, caused the explosion of violence in the Mau Mau Rebellion from 1952-1956. The British responded brutally by murdering 10,000 of these.
Analysis 3 – This is significant as it indicates that Britain’s interest continued in Empire. They still had economic interest in Africa and were willing to risk their reputation of high moral standards, as well as British troops, to maintain control of East Africa and its role in Empire.
Agree
Point 1 – Imperial themes began to fade in Popular Culture indicating a loss of interest in Empire.
Evidence 2 – The British Nationality Act in 1948 granted full British citizenship to every inhabitant of Empire in recognition of their wartime contribution causing a huge growth in colonial immigrants. As issues surrounding employment became popularly blamed on these immigrants, gangs emerged such as the ‘Teddy Boy’ youths in 1958 and political movements such as Mosley’s Union Movement which promoted curbing immigration, a policy which was supported by 90% of the British public in a 1962 poll.
Analysis 2 – This is significant as it explains why pro-imperialist sentiment was on the decline in the second half of the 20th century. The racist attitudes were strongest within working class communities, as these immigrants were believed to be taking jobs, housing, health care etc the people did not want to support the Empire and a constant stream of people coming from it. Therefore the British public had lost their interest.
Evidence 1 - In 1960 PM Macmillan made the Winds of Change speech which conveyed decolonisation as a gift as Britain were choosing to abandoned Empire through a supposed loss of interest.
The process of Decolonisation could be interrogated to show that Britain often gave up its colonies with considerable reluctance, and that British governments and administrators were far
from disinterested in the process.
To what extent was there continuity in British colonial policy in the years 1947 to 1967?
Para 1 – Change
Point 1 - there was considerable change in Britain’s colonial policy during this period regarding the economic emphasis put on the Empire.
Evidence – Immediately after WW2, Britain hoped that the Empire and the Commonwealth could restore Britain’s economy hence why she didn’t join the EEC in 1957. However, by 1960 Western Europe was catching up to the amount of trade with the commonwealth and by 1965 Western Europe accounted for 32.5% of British exports, 5% more than the Commonwealth. Britain applied to the EEC in 1963 and 1967 but was rejected both times.
Analysis 1 – Due to exports to Europe outstripping those to the Empire countries, Britain application to the EEC indicates a change in policy, they were realising the fading value of the Empire and its colonies and thus turned to Europe which was not common within British policy making.
Point 2 – Whilst decolonisation appeared to occur at a constant rate, the process changed on a case by case basis as the attitudes of colonial administrators differed greatly.
Evidence 2 – In Kenya Britain had formerly relied on devolving power to the tribal chiefs under the watch of a British official. Now, under Administrator Evelyn Baring, Operation Jock Scott had been launched in 1952 which arrested suspected Mau Mau and took power back. Similarly in Malaya it was no longer possible to rely on the Malay sultans in the conditions of the Malayan Emergency from 1948 to 1960.
Analyse 2 – This contrasts which the colonial policy used in Uganda and Nigeria at the same time. In Uganda, admin Andrew Cohen issued a report in 1947 which set out a new direction towards gradual reform for independence and strongly believed in listening to nationalists. In Nigeria 1950 John Macpherson opened up the higher levels of colonial administration for the Nigerians and he aimed at managing the transition smoothly to indepndence.
Therefore, the colonial policy relating to the colonies was clearly inconsistent when looked at on a case by case basis. The British sometimes used repression whilst in others they used diplomacy and concession.
Para 2 – Continuity
Evidence 1 – There was a continuation of gradual decolonisation across 1947 to 1967. This process can be understood to have begun following WW2 in India 1947, one year later Ceylon became independent, same in Sudan 1956, Nigeria 1960, Kenya 1963, Gambia 1965.
Analyse 2 – This process was continuous, although reasons ranged from economic, moral, strategic and political. Whilst the reasons may not be the same, the colonial policy continued, it was consistent with its pace of decolonisation which links in with the next point.
Point 2 - Britain was determined to decolonise at its own pace and consistently used violence and repression against nationalist movements.
Evidence 2 – In Kenya, Britain was reluctant to grant independence. They saw this region as being ideal for economic development as seen in the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme which ended in 1951 at a cost of £49 million, and valuable in its fertile lands which British settlers used, forcing indigenous farmers onto infertile land. This caused the explosion of violence in the Mau Mau Rebellion from 1952-60. The British responded brutally by murdering 10,000 of these uprisers. akin to Egypt 1956?
Analyse 3 -
Evidence 3 - By 1947, ethnic tensions were so high that the British had to abandon its original plan for a Malay Union. In the 1948 they introduced the Federation of Malaya which greatly restricted the Malay people and devolved their power, naturally this caused greater resistance leading to the State of Emergency being declared in 1948 which empowered the colonial authority to use military force to impose order on the country.
Analyse 3 – Similarly to Kenya, Malaya was a major contributor to the Hard Currency Pool within the Sterling Area and its rubber proved a crucial dollar earner. This reliance on violence and repression to ensure the slow pace of decolonisation clearly is a consistent continuation throughout areas of economic importance.
In the years 1947 to 1967 most white Britons showed little interest in Empire’ Assess the validity.
Agree
Point 1 – The British public produced a sense of aversion towards the emigrants from the Empire and thus Empire itself.
Evidence 1 – The British Nationality Act in 1948 granted full British citizenship to every inhabitant of Empire in recognition of their wartime contribution causing a huge growth in colonial immigrants. As issues surrounding employment became popularly blamed on these immigrants, gangs emerged such as the ‘Teddy Boy’ youths in 1958 and political movements such as Mosley’s Union Movement which promoted curbing immigration, a policy which was supported by 90% of the British public in a 1962 poll.
Analysis 1 – This is significant as it explains why pro-imperialist sentiment was on the decline in the second half of the 20th century. The racist attitudes were strongest within working class communities, as these immigrants were believed to be taking jobs, housing, health care etc the people did not want to support the Empire and a constant stream of people comign from it. Therefore the British public had lost their interest.
Point 2- imperial traditions were fading in popularity
Evidence 2 - Each Empire Day, millions of school children from all walks of life across the length and breadth of the British Empire would typically salute the british flag and hear tales from Empire. By 1958, Empire day ended and replaced with Commonwealth Day.
Analysis 2 – This was something different, commonwealth is not Empire. Empire was a symbol of Britain’s power and its control over the world whilst Commonwealth is a free association group by which were not ruled by Britain. The significance of the termination of such a momentous event indicates that the political climate was no longer one in great support of Empire, this name change was the politically correct thing to do in a time when Empire was coming to its end.
Point 3 – Popular literature was moving away from pro-imperialist values.
Evidence 3 – The ground-breaking comic ‘Eagle’ published first in 1950 explicitly informed its writers that foreigners were not to be depicted as either enemies or villains and that at least one child in any group of people should be from an ethnic minority.
Analyse 3 - Children’s stories and comics such as the Boys’ Own Paper had championed British values and support for the Empire, whereas this was clearly changing by the 1950s. This change could be indicative of a changing outlook on peoples of Empire amongst the public, or more likely, that following the influx of the peoples included in the stories, the caricature imagery presented in the literature was being recognised as propaganda.
Disagree
Evidence 1 – The British Empire Games were hugely popular, the 1958 games had an attendance of 245,000 people. These games started by recognising that the participants are loyal subjects of His Majesty the King, Emperor, and will take part in the British Empire Games in the spirit of true sportsmanship.
Analysis / Counter Argument 1 – This appears to be a continuation of the pro-imperialist grandeur experienced hitherto 1950. However, support for the Empire games should not be mistaken for support for Empire. The British people cared for the competitive nature of the sport, not the branding of the event. Naturally, there was a continued sense of patriotism and support for the British but this was not the jingoism that supported Britain’s imperial actions.
Evidence 2 - Many white Britons emigrated into the commonwealth and empire. Between 1947 and 1957, approximately 1 million people left Britain for its dominions.
Analysis 1 – This indicates that many British people still had interest in the Empire, they wanted to explore it and seek wealth just as the white settlers had done over the course of Empire.
Counterargue 1 – However, as living standards improved throughout the 1950’s, emigration ceased- only showing interest to improve their lives
Decolonisation in Asia, in the years 1945 to 1965 was more the result of Britain’s changed international position after the Second World War, than of pressure from nationalist groups’. Assess the validity of this view.
Agree
Point 1 – The post WW2 position in relation to the USA was significant in causing decolonization
Evidence - Britain emerged from war heavily dependent on the USA for defence and economic support. In 1945 Britain borrowed $4.34bn from the USA so they were in serious debt. This meant that the British could not afford to damage their relationship with them. After the Nazi persecution of Jews in the 1930s there was a huge influx of Jews into Palestine, which also increased the tensions between the two groups. The Americans wanted to support the Jews while the British wanted to help the Jews in order to keep their arab allies. This placed Britain in a difficult position forcing her in 1947 to state she would hand over Palestine to the UN in 1948
Analysis 1 – USA was anti-imperialist; Britain was therefore subject to some US pressure to speedup decolonisation. British could have continued to use repressed to mitigate pressure from nationalist groups but international position theat drove their decision.
Point 2 – Following WW2, India decolonisation could be held as a result of changing position.
Evidence 2 – Following WW2, the Labour Government was elected in 1945 with a landslide majority over the Conservatives as domestic issues were prevalent. The Labour Government was more averse to Empire and was more focused on domestic policy and had no ideological commitment to keeping India. The result reflected the voters’ belief that Labour would be more successful rebuilding Britain and carrying through social reform. As the Labour government were the ones to call the withdrawal from India in 1947 it could be argued that Britain chose to decolonise following greater focus on domestic issues, not because of nationalism.
Point 3 – This links with how the impact of war on the British economy made it reassess the benefits of colonial possessions
Evidence 3 – Following WW2, India suffered from great inflation and shortages which meant they could no longer be the great market for British cotton exports as they once had been, so the cost of holding onto it would massively outstrip any economic benefits. The Labour government realised this in 1945 which contributed towards their reasons for declaring withdrawal from India and granting independence.
Counter-Argue – However, India’s economic instability over the years 1918 – 1947 caused by nationalists exacerbated the lack of economic benefits for Britain from India. For example, nationalist Gandhi promoted boycotts in 1920 and urged Indians to withdraw their children from British-run schools, boycott the law courts, quit their colonial government jobs, and continue to refuse to buy imported cloth. There was a continuation of this in the Salt March of 1930 which led to similar boycotting on a national scale. Manufactures dropped from £75 million in 1924 to £22 million in 1937 which was a reflection of the success of Indian boycotting of British textiles. This had a compound effect on economic issues S
Disagree
Evidence 1 – In Burma 1940s, the violent activities of the Nationalists and the ascendancy of the AFPFL(anti-fascist people’s freedom league), led by Aung San , led Attlee to hasten British withdrawal since he had insufficient troops to re-impose British authority in 1948
Analyse 1 – This is significant as he did not intend for this, he originally planned a programme of measured and slow steps to independence, but the breakdown of order following nationalist actions hastened British withdrawal.
Counter Argue 1 – However, the reason he had insufficient troops was because of the poor position the Britain were now in following WW2. Furthermore, British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during World War II and as it did not provide much economic benefit, in a time of economic deprivation, it was not worth taking. Therefore WW2 greater contribution of nationalist groups.
Evidence 2 – Between 1952 and 1954, both the Malays and Chinese united against British rule and together won 81% of the votes in the federal elections of 1955. This put the British under great pressure as if they resisted Malay independence much longer, there would be a violent military rebellion. This resulted in the British allowed a Malaysia union independence in 1957.
To what extent was trade and commerce with the Empire and Commonwealth of major importance to Britain in the years 1947 to 1967?’
Importance
Point 1 – Trade and Commerce was greatly important as Britain relied on Empire and Commonwealth as they didn’t join EEC.
Evidence 1 - Immediately after WW2, Britain hoped that the Empire and the Commonwealth could restore Britain’s economy. By 1948, the Empire and Commonwealth accounted for around double the amount of imports and exports from Western Europe, 44% and 46% respectively.
Analyse 1 – This is key to understanding how in the short-term following WW2, Empire and the Commonwealth was a great source of trade for Britain which explains why they deemed it unnecessary to join the EEC in 1957.
Counter Argue 1 – However, in the long term, by 1960 Western Europe was catching up to the amount of trade with the Commonwealth and by 1965 Western Europe accounted for 32.5% of British exports, 5% more than the Commonwealth. This is significant as Britain applied to the EEC in 1963 and 1967 but was rejected both times which indicates that they recognised the fading importance of trade and commerce with Empire and the Commonwealth. It should also be noted that by 1967 most of the independent ex-colonies of Empire had chosen to join the Commonwealth, but despite this trade with Western Europe was prospering even without the EEC.
Point 2 - Government investment in colonial economies to stimulate growth of trade and commerce was popular
Evidence 2- By 1947, 58% of British overseas investments in shares and securities in Empire/Commonwealth. For example, Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme finished in 1951 - heavy investment in tractors, equipment and railways but terrain difficult to cultivate and turned into dustbowl -abandoned after costing £49m - unsuccessful.
Analysis 2 – Despite its ineffectiveness, it demonstrates the importance of trade and commerce with the Empire and Commonweath for Britain as they were willing to make huge financial commitments to maximize their profits.
Evidence 3 - Colonial Development Corporation 1948 - develop self-sustaining agricultural,industry and trad
Little Importance
Point 1 – Sterling devaluation indicative of the ineffectiveness of trade and commerce with the Commonwealth and Empire in the years 1947 to 1967.
Evidence 1 - In 1967 Harald Wilson’s Labour Government announced the Sterling devaluation which lowered the value of the pound to dollar exchange rate by 14%. This was designed to cut Britain’s deficit by making British exports cheaper as they were spending more on exports than gaining from exports.
Analysis 1 – This is significant in understanding the fading importance of trade and commerce with empire as this destroyed the old ‘Sterling Area’ by weakening international faith in the value of sterling and hit at Britain’s global imperial pretensions. In the same year the British reapplied to the EEC which indicates they had were focusing away from Empire post 1967.
Nationalist leaders and colonial administrators shaped the British government’s relationship with its Empire, in the years 1947 to 1967.’ Assess the validity.
Agree
Evidence 1 - Dr Azikiwe in Nigeria – Nigeria was a culturally and ethnically divided country, Azikiwe worked with the nationalist rivals (of other parties and British) and the briitsh to create a viable and stable Nigerian state. He helped shape the British government’s relationship with its Empire as he made a deal with the Northern People’s Congress which established Nigeria’s first government with Azikiwe as President. This is significant as it pursuaded the British that it was possible for various groups to work successfully within a federal system, British rule wasn’t necessary to ensure stabilitiy. Hence independence granted in 1960.
Evidence 2 – Sir Charles Arden-Clarke – Gold Coast - vital player in shaping British relationship with Empire. He played a great role in securing the release of nationalist leader Nkrumah from prison in 1951 and bringing him into government. Nkrumah understood the importance of developing a working relationship with the British to gain their confidence and support in order to establish a stable state. This was central in defusing rioting and strikes in West Africa. This facilitated the path to independence, and so much so that when it did arrive in 1957 Arden-Clarke was in such high regard that he was asked by the Ghanaian government to to become the country’s first honorary ‘Governor-General’. Clearly indicative of a greater relationship between Britain and Empire.
Evidence 3 – Sir John Macpherson – Nigeria - In Nigeria 1950 John Macpherson opened up the higher levels of colonial administration for the Nigerians and he aimed at managing the transition smoothly to independence. In 1951 he organised a major conference to open discussions on a constitution that could accommodate the different regions and their competing political authorities.
Counter Argue – This could be argued to have caused difficulties for the relationship between Britain and its Empire as it the ‘Macpherson Constitution’ failed to work effectively in the face of competing interests.
Nevertheless – As Colonial Administrator, Macpherson certainly helped to ensure that, in spite of the wrangling between the regional factions, an independent Nigeria emerged in 1960, which did not collapse into separatism, anarchy, or war but instead a stable state that joined the Commonwealth in 1960 Therefore this administrator enabled a lasting relationship with the country.
Disagree
Evidence 1 - In Kenya under Administrator Evelyn Baring, Operation Jock Scott had been launched in 1952 which arrested suspected Mau Mau and took power back. Furthermore, in June 1957, Baring passed a secret memorandum to Alan Lennox Boyd – a British conservative politican. This confirmed the atrocity of the British behaviour during the Mau Mau uprising and mentioned how Baring himself asserted that inflicting “violent shock” was the only way of suppressing the Mau Mau rebellion.
‘British rule was disastrous for both the Indians and the Bantu of South Africa in the years 1857 to 1890.’
Disastrous
As a result of the exaggerated reports given by the times about the mutiny, particularly the massacre at Cawnpore, where English women and children were said to have been killed and some raped by the Indian rebels.- 100,000 Indians were killed as a result of the rebellion.
The Indian Mutiny was in 1857- The British saw this as a betrayal, and as a result of this, their response towards it was ruthless and disastrous. For instance, Muslim rebels swine into pig skins which can be seen as disastrous because it was a brutal fate for any follower of Islam.
some of those who rebelled were launched off canoes and blown to pieces and survivors were forced to clean the blood or be forced to clean it with their tongue.
In the Zulu war of 1879 around 10,000 Zulus were killed, and control over their land was taken from them by the British.
Beneficial
Tea production increased dramatically from 1 plantation in 1851 to 295 plantations in 1871. (Indians by 1880 most Indians still lived in subsistence farming)
The British invested in the railway construction, 15000 miles by 1880(2 miles a day). India
The British maintained their commitment to ending slavery and the slave trade after 1857. Bantu
‘Attitudes towards imperialism in Britain in the years 1857 to 1890 were unduly triumphalist, reflecting a one-sided and narrow-minded outlook.’
Narrow-minded outlook
Times report in 1857, distorted the events of the Indian mutiny- This influenced the views of the British public to have a narrow mindset outlook towards Indians.
The views towards Africans during the 1880s. As a result of the newspaper article by the telegraph in 1882, the people of England had a very narrow-minded outlook towards the people of Africa, and saw them as savages because they believed their fellow European brothers and sisters had been killed by the Egypt ‘‘savages’’.
Social Darwinism - This was very popular during the 1890s. It was a distorted version of Darwin’s theory of evolution, which had striking elements of racial superiority and the intellectual backwardness of Africans and Indians, believing that in comparison to people who were of a white Skin tone, those with a darker skin tone were underdeveloped and developed.
Literature - the Karma Sutra in 1885- This was a very popular book at the time, and to many of its readers was an accurate presentation of the ‘‘backward’’ sexual activities performed by the people of the Empire, for instance, colonial people in India.
Against
Politicians such as Gladstone(liberal) in 1868 were against imperialism and wanted to focus on imperial development. This shows how the British people did not have a narrow-minded outlook towards the empire as he was elected by the people. However, he did lose to the party of the empire in 1874.
Peoples of the empire also came from Britain for instance African sailors, Indian servants, traders and colonial politicians and sailors settled in the port cities of London, Cardiff and Liverpool, especially as the empire began to grow even more in the 1880s.
Counter argument- Despite the colonial people’s main interest in traders or other British politicians, and hardly ever interacted with the working-class British population, who made up the majority of the British people. Therefore the majority of the British population had a narrow-minded outlook towards imperialism.
‘The British view of the empire in the years 1857 to 1890 was primarily shaped by what people read in the newspapers.’
- Between 1870 and 1890, literacy in England, Wales and Scotland had risen from 80% to 97%. This was due to the Gladstone Education Act in 1870 and 1880 which introduced free, state primary education to the age of 11, ideas about the Empire were increasingly circulated through the written word.
Newspapers
The Times’ report on the Indian Mutiny of 1857-1858. - Exaggerating the number of British women killed and raped at Cawnpore stating that children as young as 10 years old were raped, this became evident to the people of Britain that the Indians were savage in nature and that they needed to be punished for their crimes. ( however, this story was criticised as a false propaganda story by Karl Marx, who pointed out that the story was written by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion.
The Telegraph report on the Arabi Pasha revolt in Egypt - suggested that 100 Europeans were killed at the revolt when in fact it was about 50, as a result of this news report people in Britain viewed the Egyptians as savages similar to the Indians, in need of civilisation and punishment.
Newspapers did not have a long-term impact on people’s views and were only popular while the event was going on.
literature
The boys’ own newspaper appeared in 1879 and featured stories portraying soldiery and bravery across the globe. it included contributions from colonel Baden Powell, who participated in the invasion of Ndebele territory in the 1890s.
she- 1887. The story portrayed a lost, superior white African civilisation, surrounded by barbarity and superstition, which was heavily influenced by social Darwinist ideas about race.
- Boys wanted more physical activity which is why they joined associations such as the boy’s brigade in 1883, so the literature was not very impactful.
Exhibitions
in 1886, the colonial and Indian Exhibition was held in South Kensington to give to the inhabitants of the British Isles and foreigners a practical demonstration of the wealth and industrial development of the outlying portions of the British empire.
London hosted an African exhibition in 1890. This was the work of traders, government officials and missionaries. it celebrated explorers and colonisation, it also provided a display of photographs, and maps showing European colonial expansion in Africa and the routes of famous British explorers. There were also trophy displays of shields, spears and axes, an African hut and two boys from Bechuanaland. 5.5 million people attended these exhibitions, 20% of the British population.
Most persuasive- it had a long-term impact on people’s views towards empire because they could see for themselves the differences between them and the African and Indian population, therefore consolidating the belief in the otherness.
How significant a role did men on the spot play in promoting Britain’s Empire?
Men on the spot
- Cecil Rhodes- Believed that the more of the world the British controlled the better it would be for humanity.
- created the De Beers consolidated mines in 1888, and the British South Africa Company in 1889.
The creation of North and South Rhodesia in the 1890s, was motivated by his ambition to create a railway connecting the cape to North Africa.
William Mckinnon - Founded the Imperial East Africa Company- in 1888
This played a significant role in the expansion of the British empire in East Africa, Such as In Kenya and Uganda
counter-arguments- The Imperial East Africa Company was only given a royal charter because the British felt that the Germans would get control of the wealth and trade links in Uganda after the German East African company was created in 1884, such as the Cotton. Therefore it was due to economic reasons that the British actually ended up acquiring Kenya.
Economic
- The annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. This was due to the diamonds found there in 1867. Similar events can be seen with the annexation of West Griqualand in 1871, due to the diamonds found in the Transvaal.
- British influence in West Africa due to the Palm oil in the region which could be used as an industrial lubricate the British gave support to George Goldie to create the Royal Niger Company in 1886 - significance - Without the British need to maintain control of the trade of Palm oil in the region, Goldie would not have gotten the support he needed, because the British wanted to protect the economic interest there from other European countries
.Strategic
- Egypt - Annexation in 1882. This was confirmed by an international loan after the convention of London in 1885. This was inevitable after the purchase of 44% of the Canal in 1875. This was mainly influenced by the French. Britain was scared if they didn’t purchase it the french would.
-Bechuanaland - Annexed in 1885. To prevent the Germans who had just arrived in southwest Africa in 1884, specifically Namibia, from working with the Boers in the Transvaal, because the British felt this would threaten their economic interest.
