essay Flashcards

1
Q

Glycolysis

A

-Phosphorylation of glucose using ATP
-Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
- Net gain of ATP
-NAD reduced

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2
Q

Link/Krebs/ETC(mitochondrion)

A

-Occurs in the matrix (mitochondrion)
-Pyruvate oxidised and decarboxylated into acetate
-Produces reduced NAD and CO2
-Acetate combines with coenzyme A to produce Acetyl co A
–Substrate level production of ATP/ ATP produced in Krebs cycle
-Production of reduced NAD/FAD
-electrons fed into ETC/ used in oxidative
-electrons pass along carriers/ through electron transport chain/ through a series of REDOX reactions
- energy released
-protons move into intermembrane space
-ADP + Pi through ATP synthase

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3
Q

Light dependent reaction

A
  • Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and excites electrons
    -Electrons removed via oxidation of chlorophyll via photo ionisation
    -Electrons move along ETC releasing energy through a series of redox reactions
    -Energy released by electrons used to form proton gradient
    -H+ ions move through ATP synthase
    -Provides energy to join ADP and Pi to for ATP
    -photolysis of water to produce 2 H+, 2e- and 1/2 oxygen
    -NADP reduced by hydrogen
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4
Q

Light independent reaction

A

-CO2 combines with RUBP
- produces two GP using enzyme rubisco
- GP reduced to triose phosphate
- Using reduced NADP
-Using energy from ATP
-Triose phosphate converted to glucose or regenerated back to RUBP

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5
Q

Synapse

A

-Depolarisation of presynaptic membrane
- Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enter synaptic knob
-Ca2+ cause synaptic vesicles to move and fuse with presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter
-neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic left
- binds to receptors on post synaptic membrane
-Na+ enter post synaptic neurone and leads to depolarisation

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6
Q

Transcription

A

-mRNA attaches to ribosomes OR (mRNA attaches) to rough endoplasmic reticulum;
-tRNA anticodons bind to complementary mRNA codons;
-tRNA brings a specific amino acid;
-Amino acids join by peptide bonds via condensation reaction;
-Amino acids join together with the use of ATP
-tRNA released after amino acid joined to polypeptide
-The ribosome moves along the mRNA to form the polypeptide

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7
Q

Translation

A

-Hydrogen bonds between DNA bases break;
-Only one DNA strand acts as a template;
-Free RNA nucleotides align by complementary base pairing;
-in RNA Uracil base pairs with adenine in DNA AND In RNA Uracil is used in place of thymine;
-RNA polymerase joins adjacent RNA nucleotides;
-by phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides
-Pre-mRNA is spliced (to form mRNA) OR Introns are removed to form mRNA

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8
Q

Transpiration

A

-Evaporation/ transpiration from leaves
-creates cohesion and tension between water molecules
- Adhesion/ water molecules bind to xylem
- creates continuous column of water

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9
Q

Translocation

A

-In leaf sugars actively transported into phloem
- by companion cells
- lowers water potential of sieve cells and water enters by osmosis
-increase in pressure causes mass movement towards root
- sugars used in for respiration for storage

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10
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  1. Pathogen is engulfed by the phagocyte.
  2. Engulfed pathogen enters the cytoplasm of
    the phagocyte in a vesicle
  3. Lysosomes fuse with vesicle releasing
    digestive enzymes
  4. Lysosome enzymes break down the pathogen.
  5. Waste materials are ejected from the cell by exocytosis
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11
Q

vaccines

A

-Vaccine contains specific antigen from pathogen
-Macrophage presents antigen on its surface
-T helper cell with complementary receptor protein binds to antigen & becomes activated;
-T cell stimulates B cell by complementary receptor binding and releases cytokines;
-With complementary antibody on its surface
-B cell divides to form clone secreting / producing same antibody
-B cell secretes large amounts of monoclonal antibody

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12
Q

AIDS

A
  • high viral load leads to increased destruction of helper T cells
  • Less activation of B cells
    -Less production of plasma cells so less able to kill virus infected cells
  • Less able to destroy other pathogens
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13
Q

Mitosis

A

Prophase:
-Nuclear membrane begins to breakdown;
-Centrioles move to poles of the cell;
-Chromatin supercoils and condense into chromosomes
-Chromosomes appear as 2 sister chromatids joined by a centromere

Metaphase:
-Spidle fibres form and attach to the centromere of each chromosomes
-Chromosomes align at the equator

Anaphase:
-Spindle fibres shorten
-Centromere splits and Sister chromatids are separated
-Chromatids pulled to opposite poles of the cell

Telophase:
Nuclear membrane begins to reform;
Chromosomes unwind

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14
Q

Meiosis

A

-Homologous chromosomes pair up; or form a Bivalent
-maternal and paternal chromosomes are arranged in any order
-Independent segregation
-Crossing over
-Equal Portions of chromatids are swapped between chromosomes
-Produces new combination of alleles
-Chromatids separated at meiosis 2

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15
Q

Starch digestion

A

-salivary Amylase
-Starch to Maltose
-Maltose to glucose using maltase
-Hydrolysis of Glycosidic bonds;

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16
Q

Protein digestion

A

-hydrolysis of peptide bonds;
-Endopeptidase act in the middle of protein
-Exopeptidases act at end of protein
-Dipeptidase acts between two amino acids
-Dipeptidase produces single amino acids

17
Q

Co transport

A

-Facilitated diffusion of amino acid into cell when higher concentration in lumen
-Co-transport
-Sodium ions actively transported from cell to blood
-Creating sodium ion concentration gradient
-Facilitated diffusion of amino acid into blood

18
Q

Lipid absorption

A

-Micelles include bile salts and fatty acids
-Make the fatty acids more soluble in water
-Brings fatty acids to lining of the ileum
-Maintain higher concentration of fatty acids to lining of the ileum
-Fatty acids absorbed by diffusion

19
Q

IAA

A

Shoot tips:

-IAA synthesised in shoots tips.
-IAA diffuses into growing cell elongating region.
-Light causes movement of IAA from light side to shaded side
-Proportionally more IAA on shaded side
-Causes directional growth as there is greater cell elongation on shaded side.
-Shaded side grows faster and causes shoot to bend towards the light.

Roots:
-IAA synthesised in root tips.
-IAA diffuses into growing cell elongation region.
-IAA moves towards shaded side.
-Inhibits cell elongation.
-Uneven growth more elongation on side with less IAA
-Causes directional growth away from light and downwards towards gravity.

20
Q

Oestrogen

A

-Oestrogen diffuses through the cell membrane
- attaches to ERa receptor and causes change in shape
-ERa receptors releases transcription factor
- oestrogen receptor binds to promoter region and enables RNA polymerase to bind to DNA and transcribe target gene
-produces mRNA of target gene

21
Q

Link 1
-Oxygen final electron receptor

A

-Oxygen is the final electron acceptor
-allows oxidative phosphorylation to continue
-ATP demands of cells
-delays anaerobic respiration
- muscles fatigue less quickly

22
Q

Link 2
-ensures plants grow towards favourable conditions

A

-ensures plants grow towards favourable conditions
- higher light intensities to maximise GPP, this leads to a higher NPP
- more glucose for more ATP for faster growth

23
Q

Link 3
-dead or damaged cells are replaced

A
  • dead or damaged cells are replaced
    -tissues and organs are repaired
24
Q

Link 4
- faster production of ATP

A
  • have faster production of ATP and reduced NADP
  • so have faster LIR
    -so produces more sugars that can be used in respiration
  • so more energy for growth
  • have faster synthesis of new organic materials
25
Q

Link 5
increased methylation

A
  • increased methylation of TSG
  • mutation in TSG
  • TSG not transcribed or primary structure altered
  • results in rapid/ uncontrollable cell division