ESOL Praxis Flashcards
PHONOLOGY
study of speech sounds and how they behave and change depending on the situation or placements
ex: helpS vs. crabS
PHONETICS
study of speech sounds as they stand in isolation
PHONOLOGICAL RULES
used to predict how a speech sound will change depending on its position in various speech environments
Which type of sounds make your voice vibrate? (voiced or voiceless)
voiced
SYNTAX
grammatical rules for arrangement of words and phrases
MORPHOLOGY
study of formation and structure of words
3 components of phonology
phonemes
allophones
morphemes
PHONEMES
smallest meaningful speech sound in vocal language
Can be vowels or consonants
ex: /f/ and /w/ because they distinguish fish from wish
ALLOPHONES
different variants of same phoneme
don’t change the meaning of their word
ex: T in kitten, truck, atom
MORPHEMES
short segments of language that are part of a word or words themselves
smallest unit of meaning
ex: re- always means “again”
Bilabial
this placement involves bringing both lips together to produce certain sounds (p, b, and m sounds)
Labiodental
the bottom lip touches the upper teeth to produce certain sounds (f and v sounds).
Interdental
the tip of the tongue is place between the teeth to produce certain sounds (certain t sounds).
Alveolar
the tongue touches the roof of the mouth, or the alveolar ridge, to produce certain sounds (such as d, n, s, z, l, and r sounds).
Palatal
the front part of the tongue is raised and touches roof of the mouth to produce certain sounds (such as ch and sh sounds).
Velar
the back part of the tongue is raised and touches roof of the mouth to produce certain sounds (such as k and g sounds).
Uvular
the back part of the tongue is raised towards the back of the throat, or the uvula, to produce certain sounds (such as r and q sounds).
Glottal
involves the glottis or where the vocal cords are located. Air can be restricted or stopped completely in this area of the throat. It is associated with the h sound.
High vowels vs. low vowels
how high or low the tongue is during pronunciation
Back vowel vs front vowel
if the tongue is positioned in the back or front of the mouth during pronunciation,
Intonation
how high or low the pitch of a person’s voice is
intonation does not change the meanings of individual words. But it is still important because the intonation of a sentence helps guide you through it and follow the speaker’s intended meaning.
Ex: rising intonation at end of a question
lexeme
the minimal word unit that has content meaning in itself.
To put it simply, lexemes are the basis of dictionary entries
morpheme vs lexeme
Within the study of morphology, a morpheme is further distinguished from a lexeme, the latter being the minimal word unit that has content meaning in itself. To put it simply, lexemes are the basis of dictionary entries. A morpheme is, more broadly speaking, a language unit, which can be a word unit, and therefore a lexeme. It can also be an affix or a word part that has no content meaning in itself but has functional meaning.
derivational morphemes
they produce a new word with a different meaning to the stem word, rather than simply producing a new form of the word.
-“dis-“ is a prefix meaning “not”, as in “disinterested” and “dislike”
-“un-“ is a prefix meaning “the opposite of”, as in “unhappy” and “uncover”
-“extra-“ is a prefix meaning “more than”, as in “extraordinary” and “extramarital”
As a derivational prefix, “dis-“ does not have content meaning in itself, but fulfills the function of turning the word into the opposite of the stem word. For instance, when “dis-“ is added to “like”, “dislike” results, which is the opposite of the stem word “like”. A new word with a new meaning is thus formed.
Bound morphemes
must be attached to other morphemes in order to make sense. Bound morphemes cannot stand on their own and do not have content meaning, but do, however, hold functional meaning. Affixes are examples of bound morphemes and include suffixes and prefixes.
Inflectional morpheme
An inflectional affix does not change the meaning of the word. It simply gives us a new form of the same word. For instance, adding “-ing” to “jump” merely denotes the action (to jump) as being in the continuous tense. Adding “-fy” to “horror” merely denotes a change in form of the stem word, from noun to verb.
free morphemes
can stand freely as individual words or lexemes, and have content meaning of their own.
Lexical morphemes
refer to words that have meaning by themselves and include adjectives, nouns, and verbs. Lexical morphemes are content words that refer to the real world. “Dog”, “house”, “bitter” and “sweet” are all lexical morphemes.
Functional morphemes
serve a grammatical purpose and explain the relationship between words in a language. These include pronouns, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, and demonstratives. For instance, in the sentence, “she walks through the park to get to the store every evening,” the words “she”, “through”, “the”, “to” and “every” are functional morphemes that indicate the relationship between the lexical morphemes “walks”, “park”, “store”, “evening”.
Affix
a bound morpheme, being a word unit that does not have content meaning in itself, but has functional meaning. The suffix and the prefix are examples of affixes.
diction
The words that a writer chooses for their work
Semantics
how meaning is constructed and communicated in written or spoken language
The three major types of semantics
formal, lexical, and conceptual
Formal semantics
the study of the relationship between words and meaning from a philosophical or even mathematical standpoint. This branch of semantics is concerned with the truth of utterances and how that truth is determined.
Lexical semantics
the study of the meaning of individual words in context
Conceptual semantics
all about the literal/dictionary definition of a word
sign
In linguistics, a word that represents a concept
idioms
You may have seen idioms described as common figurative phrases or sayings. That’s not what idioms are on the GMAT. An idiom is a grammatical construction in English that doesn’t have a specific rule to follow. It’s simply the way we talk. These questions will involve grammar issues such as correct preposition usage, correlatives, and the forms of comparisons.
Collocation
predictable combination of words’ for example we can say heavy rain but not strong rain because it does not sound right’ likewise, we can say ‘do exercise’ but not ‘make exercise’.
pragmatics
Meaning is shaped by contextual factors, such as the situation in which a sentence is used or the social rules that tell us how we should use language.
Pragmatic failure
the mistakes made by the speakers in the communication, which doesn’t perform the complete communicative task. It is not called errors, because this kind of failure doesn’t come from the grammar of the language.
ex: if an apology is interpreted as an excuse
Ethnography
the study of culture, including social and speech patterns and variation within a culture
sociolect
the dialect of a particular social class.
Dialects
variations in how various regional groups or social groups speak a language. Different dialects may vary in their grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the same language. Don’t think of dialects as something ‘other people’ speak. We each speak a certain dialect with distinct patterns and features.
Register
relates to how a person uses the language based on particular settings or context. For example, you likely write differently than you speak English. This is a change in register.
Unlike dialect, which is slow to change, register can shift in an instant. One minute, you’re chatting with a coworker about a favorite TV show, and the next minute you’re writing up a formal statement.
communicative competence
the capacity to utilize language in a grammatically correct way in different and appropriate social settings. The model of communicative competence deals with the functional parts of communication. It similarly deals with the correct use of the linguistic system. When both sides are balanced, language fluency comes into play. Simply put, communicative competence refers to how effectively one can communicate with someone else.
Sociolinguistic competence
the rules that control appropriate language. This includes using terms of politeness and formality when required and understanding that one does not speak the same in all situations.
includes knowing what setting to be formal in and what setting is appropriate for informal language.
Discourse competence
the knowledge of what cohesive devices and patterns of organization are used to connect sentences. This relates to the way words are organized, what phrases are used, and how sentences are created. It produces conversations, messages, literature, and articles that are easy to comprehend. One generally has discourse competence if one can write, read, speak, and listen to information of varying types.
Strategic competence
strives for the fluency and efficacy of communication by overcoming the language gap. This is in regard to audience and purpose. An example of this would be asking for clarification on a term one does not understand.
communicative approach
language learners thrive best when placed in meaningful situations that involve true communication
BICS
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)- social language
CALP
Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency- academic language
Tier 1 vocab
basic, single-meaning words that usually do not require direct instruction. Children acquire Tier 1 vocabulary words in the context of their daily lives. Social language is characterized by the use of Tier 1 vocabulary. Sight words, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and basic reading vocabulary occur at this level. Examples: table, boy, apple, house, book, dog
Tier 2 vocab
more complex words which can be found over numerous content domains. They are used frequently enough to be recognized by native speakers but may need to be taught explicitly, as they may have irregular phonetic or grammar rules. They are not specialized enough to be unique to specific contexts as in the case of Tier 3 words, but they may be difficult to read or need to be sought in a dictionary or applied to a specific context to achieve full understanding. Examples: inevitable, complex, evaluate, cite
Tier 3 vocab
low frequency and highly specialized words, specific to certain domains or disciplines. Tier 3 words need specific instruction. Examples: metamorphic, electrolyte, cumulus
Code switching
when language learners switch back and forth between two or more languages within a single sentence or conversation.
comprehensible input
the practice of using teaching aids, like visuals, adapted content, and other strategies, to make language more understandable for second language learners
Comprehensible Input During Reading
explicitly pre-teach vocabulary prior to reading the text. Next, present reading material in a variety of ways to give ELL students options for what works best for them. For example, look for bilingual versions of the text so students have native language support. Find graphic novel adaptations that reinforce the text with visuals. Read aloud to students or allow them to listen to an audio book as they follow along. Allowing students to read in pairs or small groups can also help, depending on student proficiency levels. Provide students with graphic organizers and thinking maps, and explicitly teach them how to use them to enhance comprehension. Highlight key vocabulary and concepts in the text, and make marginal notes to draw students’ attention to the most important points
Comprehensible Input During Listening & Speaking
Speaking too quickly and using advanced vocabulary will ensure that the content will fly right over ELL students’ heads. You don’t necessarily have to speak in slow motion, either. Find a natural pace that gives all students a chance to follow along, and make sure to enunciate clearly.
You don’t want ELL students just sitting in the classroom pretending to understand what is going on. One approach to providing comprehensible input during instruction is known as total physical response, or TPR. Using this approach, the teacher combines words and movement to make language more meaningful. For example, the teacher might start by directing students to pick up a pencil while modeling this very action. Next, the teacher might say, ‘Put down the pencil.’ At first, ELL students might not understand these verbal directions, but over time, after watching other students, they begin to associate the verbal input with the actions themselves. This helps them to acquire new vocabulary. A variation on this approach is the game Simon Says, in which students only perform actions that are preceded by the words ‘Simon Says.’
Comprehensible Input During Writing
Sentence starters and word banks should be used for all writing instruction as scaffolding support until students are able to produce language independently. Sentence starters model the correct language and structure of a student’s writing, allowing them to focus on the delivery of their response. For example, let’s say your Spanish instructor at the community college wants you to write a response, en Español, to the question, ‘How do you feel today, and why do you feel this way?’ She hands out a paper with a list of adjectives that might describe feelings and emotions, as well as sentence starters like ‘I feel _____ because _____.’ The addition of these supports will make the assignment much easier for you than if the instructor had simply told you the directions and said, ‘Go!’
positive transfer
similarities in languages (ex: cognates) makes it easy to learn a second language
negative transfer
aka: interference; when the language rules of the two languages don’t exactly align, you get weird sentence constructions
affective factors that impact learning of a second language
inhibition
attitudes
anxiety
self-esteem
inhibition
Students who have high levels of inhibition often choose not to participate. Inhibition is the mechanism a person uses to protect themselves from exposure to others. Inhibited students usually feel vulnerable or even less capable than their peers. Thus, inhibition has a negative impact on performance but not necessarily on learning.
Teaching methods (affective factors)
Lowering Students’ Affective Filters
Providing Supportive and Constructive Feedback
Valuing Students’ Background
Promoting Linguistic Risk-Taking
How to Lower Students’ Affective Filters
encouraging communication
How to- Valuing Students’ Background
Teachers can positively influence second language acquisition students by valuing their diverse cultural and language backgrounds. For instance, when students have to write a composition on a holiday they love, Fernanda tells her teacher she wants to write about Día de los Muertos, which she used to celebrate back in Mexico. While the teacher was initially thinking of US holidays, she sees the attachment Fernanda has to her culture and thus, encourages to write about it. Also, she encourages Fernanda to include words in Spanish and explain their meaning in English. This way, Fernanda’s cultural and language background is validated in the context of an English as a second language class.
How to- Promoting Linguistic Risk-Taking
a teacher encourages students to communicate in the way they can without having to worry about formal language conventions. For example, when Fernanda says, ‘‘I don’t know the word for the thing I ate yesterday,’’ her teacher asks what the food looked like. The student says, ‘‘it was a sausage covered with bread in a wood thing like a pencil.’’ The teacher goes along and says she perfectly understands that Fernanda ate a corn dog on a stick. The teacher even tells Fernanda how to make one at home. This supportive environment encourages students to take risks in using the language they can produce without having to worry about grammar, vocabulary accuracy, or even pronunciation.
Arguments for and against allowing students to use native language when learning a second language
Pro- allows students to make connections and ID root words, grammar is explicitly taught, relieves anxiety
Con- students learn how the language quicker when they are not allowed to use the native language. They refine grammar as they go, similar to how babies learn a language
base
standalone morpheme
aka: free morpheme
Teaching Spelling to ESL Students
Word Sorts
Word Hunts- Students can look through newspapers and magazines for words that they can add to their word sorts.
Alphabetizing
Cognates
Typing Practice
whole language approach (WLA)
metacognitive (thinking about thinking)- making sense of skills used in reading and writing
At its foundation is the assertion that language is whole and that learning complete words rather than their constituent parts is paramount. WLA prioritizes teaching children to read whole words and make sense of their reading using their previous life experiences. The connections among words are valued over the letter sounds within those words.
Learners practice memorizing sight words
best guess spelling, also called approximated spelling
Phonics
a method of learning to read that values the learning of the letters and their sounds. Phonics instruction is generally systematic and sequential rather than being tied to real life contexts. The objective is to master the sound symbol connections as well as letter sound usage. It is a very explicit approach to early literacy instruction where learners focus on the small, constituent components of words to develop their decoding skills. Students learn to sound out words and to put sounds together using blends.
Language experience approach
LEA requires active participation from teachers and students in order to work. Natural language acquisition occurs in every person at a young age when they learn their native language. First, they listen. Slowly, as they learn to match certain sounds to certain objects and situations, they repeat the sound until they can string together more and more sounds to express more complex ideas. The process of language acquisition is incredibly complex, yet that language and its use become so natural that most people never consider it until they try to learn an additional language later in life.
A teacher needs to engage in a conversation with students while encouraging participation by everyone involved, providing constructive criticism, and otherwise maintaining the student’s motivation. The teacher must provide hands-on activities for students.
Either the teacher or the student can write the texts for LEA. If the teacher writes a text, it is typically to model what they want the students to do. The teacher might create the text independently and show it to students so they can analyze it, or the teacher might create the text with suggestions and feedback from students.
Either way, the process should involve both parties participating in some manner. LEA should never be just a teacher speaking to students. Students need to be involved for the process to work.
Reading the text is an important part of LEA. However the text was generated, students should read it out loud to better connect the spoken and written word. If students created the text with minimal input from the teacher, reading it out loud will help them hear their own voice and perhaps better understand how it sounds.
Can be individual or group task.
Implicit phonics instruction
The danger that his students might not enjoy reading makes Lyle nervous. He’s not sure that he wants to use explicit instruction if it means that his students won’t enjoy it, but what else is there? The teacher next door to Lyle believes in implicit phonics instruction, which, she explains, involves teaching children phonics through exposure to language, instead of through teaching explicit rules.
Let’s go back to Lyle’s lesson. He wants to teach that ‘a-consonant-e’ makes a long ‘a’ sound. In implicit phonics instruction, instead of telling his students the rule, he might present them with a long list of ‘a-consonant-e’ words, and then ask what they notice about the words. He could also read them a book or a poem with lots of ‘a-consonant-e’ words, and then let them draw their own conclusions.
Implicit instruction is all done without giving children the language rule, but instead exposing them to language and letting them draw their own conclusions.
literature-based instruction approach
reading instruction approach where students are exposed to authentic literature in the classroom, rather than a phonics approach or a vocabulary-based approach. The focus of literature-based instruction is specific literature that is deemed quality and authentic. Reading through exposure to literature is called literature-based instruction. Literature-based instruction requires different genres that are appropriate for each student’s instructional and emotional level. In this type of teaching, the teacher’s role is to supervise the literature choices and assist students in finding literature that is challenging, but not too difficult. The teacher’s aim in literature-based instruction should be to facilitate understanding and growth in key reading skills such as comprehension, phonetic awareness, vocabulary, and parts of the book.
Types:
self-selected
whole-class
reading groups
integrated (combination of the above)
One of the biggest factors affecting ability to read
Oral language skills- it:
1) develops vocabulary
2) communicates specific meanings, this makes it easier to understand the meanings within written text
3) teaches culture
4) builds comfort with communication
Factors affecting oral language development
Exposure
Socioeconomic status- wealthy people have more experiences they can discuss
Parent education levels
L1 vs L2
L1- 1st language
L2- 2nd language
Stages of L2 Development
Preproduction (silent stage)
Early production
Speech emergence
Intermediate fluency
Advanced fluency
Silent stage
1st stage of L2 development
lots of use of hand gestures to communicate, understanding is limited
lasts 6 mos
Preproduction
2nd stage of L2 development (between preproduction and speech emergence)
limited comprehension, able to utter 1-2 words, use of present tense
lasts 6 mos-1 year
Speech emergence
3rd phase of L2 development
Lasts 1-3 years
comprehend more, use small sentences to communicate, grammar errors and pronunciation errors common
Intermediate fluency
3rd through 5th years of L2 development
good comprehension and oral language use, writing errors still common
Influence of L1 on L2
language transfer- students often transfer language rules from L1 to L2
If a student has a fully developed L1, they can learn L2 more easily
This can help or hinder, depending (called interference if it hinders)
L2 learning challenges
Language transfer can help or hinder
Sometimes, ELs can depend on others to help them with the language, and this can slow their learning
Many ELs learn a new culture at the same time they are learning a new language
phonemic awareness- students have to retrain their ears
phonics- if the L2 alphabet looks or sounds different from L1
Phonemic Awareness
ability to hear and distinguish sounds in spoken language
Phonics
understanding the relationship between sounds and written letters or symbols
How to best develop reading fluency
repeated readings, instructor modeling
Second language learners need exposure to words and sentences in context in order to build fluency skills.
How to develop comprehension
Comprehension follows vocabulary development
effective engagement and interaction
intentional repeated exposure to words and context
Individual variables affecting L2 development
INTERNAL
age- children old enough to have a good grasp on L1 find it easier to learn L2; however, older children and adults struggle more with pronunciation and intonation
personality- shy/introverted takes longer (fewer exposures)
intrinsic motivation
EXTERNAL
curriculum/instruction- direct support and instruction
extrinsic motivation- praise
SOCIOPOLITICAL
social class- lower SES less successful due to lack of resources and experiences
social perceptions- negative feelings make it harder to learn
social advancement- bilingualism helps with employment opportunities
Influences on L2 literacy development
Phonemic Awareness
phonics
Reading Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension (listening and reading)
Phonemic Awareness
the ability to hear and distinguish sounds in spoken language.
Phonics
understanding the relationship between sounds and written letters or symbols.
Reading fluency in L2 is best taught through
repeated readings and instructor modeling. Second language learners need exposure to words and sentences in context in order to build fluency skills.
Building vocabulary in a second language requires
intentional and explicit exposure to words and their meanings. Repetition, encouragement, and frequent interaction with words is also important.