Ergonomics 2 Flashcards
Prelims
1
Q
Studies cognition in work and operational setting, in order to optimize human well being and system performance.
A
Cognitive Ergonomics
2
Q
___ is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.
A
Cognitive Ergonomics
3
Q
___ is the scientific study and body of knowledge of human abilities, limitations and characteristics for the appropriate design of the living and work environments.
A
Ergonomics
4
Q
Economic Advantages
A
▪ Minimizing fatigue and overexertion
▪ Minimizing absenteeism and labor turnover
▪ Improving quality and quantity of output
▪ Eliminating or minimizing injuries, strains and sprains
▪ Minimizing lost time and costs associated with injuries and accidents
5
Q
Progress in Knowledge and Technology
A
▪ Learning about human desires, capabilities and limitations
▪ Developing and applying new theories and practices
6
Q
Moral Imperative
A
▪ Maximizing safety, efficiency, comfort and productivity
▪ Improving human condition and quality of life
7
Q
The scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs, and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts.
A
Anatomy
8
Q
The scientific study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed.
A
Physiology
9
Q
The scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior, or the influence of a particular person’s character on his or her own behavior.
A
Psychology
10
Q
The field of cognitive ergonomics emerged predominantly in the ___ with the advent of the personal computers and new developments in the fields of ___ and ___.
A
- 1970s
- cognitive psychology
- artificial intelligence
11
Q
Cognitive ergonomics is the application of ___, to achieve the optimization between people and their work.
A
psychology to work
12
Q
Cognitive ergonomics is considered as an ___, and has rapidly developed over the last ___years.
A
- applied science
- 27
13
Q
According to van der Veer, ___ was one of the pioneers of ___, and advocated the notion of “___”
A
- Enid Mumford
- interactive systems engineering
- user-centered designs
14
Q
It is the evaluation of cognitive task demands
A
Task Analysis
15
Q
Operating machinery, attention evaluation
A
Analyzing motor control cognition during visual task
16
Q
Cognitive ergonomics is a division of ergonomics (human factors), a discipline and practice that aims to ensure appropriate interaction between ___, ___ and ___, and human needs, capabilities, and limitations.
A
- work
- product
- environment
17
Q
___ ergonomics = ___ processes
A
Cognitive ; Mental
18
Q
It refers to the cognitive limitations of consumers
A
Theory of Bounded Rationality (Simon, 1957)
19
Q
According to the bounded rationality, we make suboptimal decisions due to three factors – ___, ___, and ___.
A
- cognitive limitations,
- imperfect information
- time constraints
20
Q
___ refers to our inability as humans to process information in an optimal manner. In other words, we are unable to consider all available factors in our decision making.
A
Cognitive limitation
21
Q
Theory of Human Error (Reason, 1990)
A
Unsafe Act
* Unintended Action
- Slip
>Attentional Failures
- Lapse
> Memory Failure
- Mistake
> Rule-based or Knowledge-based Mistakes
* Intended Action
- Violation
> Routine Violations, exceptional violations, sabotage
22
Q
a subfield of cognitive ergonomics, aims to enhance human computer interaction by using neural correlates to better understand situational task demands.
A
Neuroergonomics
23
Q
___ is an emerging field that investigates the ___ in relations to ___ in natural environments and everyday settings.
A
- Neuroergonomics
- human brain
- behavioral performance
24
Q
This discipline has been summarized by ___, as the “ scientific study of the brain mechanisms and psychological and physical functions of humans in relation to technology, work and environments”
A
- Raja Parasuraman
25
If physical surroundings reflect and support their natural cognitive tendencies, there will be ___ and ___.
- less errors
- performance & productivity – positive boost
26
___ is the study of mental processes, which includes determining the characteristics and properties of the mind and how it operates
Cognitive psychology
27
How Long Does it Take to Make a Decision?
Donders’s Pioneering Experiment
28
Who invented Structuralism and Analytic Introspection
Wundt’s Psychology Laboratory:
29
(Who) What is the Time Course of Forgetting?
Ebbinghaus’s Memory Experiment:
30
(Who) Principles of Psychology
William James
31
Donders was interested in determining how long it takes for a person to ___.
make a decision
32
___ determined this by measuring ___ — how long it takes to respond to presentation of a stimulus
- Donders
- reaction time
33
Two measure of reaction time
- Simple Reaction Time
- Choice Reaction Time
34
Donders concluded that the decision-making process took ___.
one-tenth of a second
35
___ (perceiving the light and deciding which button to push, in this example) cannot be measured directly, but must be inferred from behavior
Mental responses
36
In ___, 11 years after Donders’s reaction time experiment, ___ founded the ___ at the ___ in ___.
- 1879
- Wilhelm Wundt
- first laboratory of scientific psychology
- University of Leipzig
- Germany
37
Wundt’s approach, which dominated psychology in the late 1800s and early 1900s, was called ___.
structuralism
38
According to structuralism, our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience the structuralists called ___.
sensations
39
Wundt wanted to create a “___”, which would include all the basic sensations involved in creating experience.
periodic table of the mind
40
Wundt thought he could achieve this scientific description of the components of experience by using ___, a technique in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli.
analytic introspection
41
German psychologist ___ (1885/1913) of the ___ was using another approach to measuring the properties of the mind.
- Hermann Ebbinghaus
- University of Berlin
42
Ebbinghaus was interested in determining the nature of ___ — specifically, how rapidly information that is learned is lost over time.
memory and forgetting
43
Ebbinghaus used a measure called ___, calculated as follows, to determine how much was forgotten after a particular delay:
savings
44
Savings Formula
Savings = (Original time to learn first) – (Time to relearn list after delay)
45
___, one of the early American psychologists (although not a student of Wundt’s), taught Harvard’s first ___ and made significant observations about the mind in his textbook, ___ (1890). Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments
- William James
- psychology course
- Principles of Psychology
46
___ Founds Behaviorism
Watson
47
___ Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s
48
___ became dissatisfied with the method of analytic introspection.
Watson
49
In response to what he perceived to be deficiencies in analytic introspection, Watson proposed a new approach called ___.
behaviorism
50
In the midst of behaviorism’s dominance of American psychology, B. F. Skinner, who received his PhD from Harvard in 1931, provided another tool for studying the ___, which ensured that this approach would dominate psychology for decades to come.
relationship between stimulus and response
51
Skinner introduced ___, which focused on how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers.
operant conditioning
52
Behaviorism approach was dominant from the ___
1940s through the 1960s
53
___, who from 1918 to 1954 was at the ___, called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior. But he was one of the early cognitive psychologists, because he used behavior to infer mental processes.
- Tolman
- University of California at Berkeley
54
Tolman (___) trained rats to find food in a four-armed maze
1938
55
Tolman believed the rat had created a ___, a representation of the maze in its mind.
cognitive map
56
Argued children learn language through operant conditioning
Skinner (1957) – Verbal Behavior
57
Argued that children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement
Chomsky (1959)
58
Shift from behaviorist’s stimulus–response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind
Information Processing
59
Way to study the mind based on insights associated with the digital computer. States that operation of the mind occurs in stages
Information-processing approach
60
___ built on James’s idea of attention. Present message A in left ear and message B in right ear. Subjects could understand details of message A despite also hearing message B
Cherry (1953)
61
___ developed flow diagram to show what occurs as a person directs attention to one stimulus
Broadbent (1958)
62
“making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving.” (McCarthy et al.,
1955)
Artificial Intelligence
63
___ created the logic theorist program that could create proofs of mathematical theorems involving logic principles
Newell and Simon
64
___ (1968) developed a three-stage model of memory:
- Arkinson and Shiffrin
▪ sensory memory (less than 1 second)
▪ short term memory (a few seconds, limited capacity)
▪ long-term memory (long duration, high capacity)
65
___ studies behavior of people with brain damage
Neuropsychology
66
___ studies electrical responses of the nervous system including brain neurons
Electrophysiology
67
Brain imaging
▪ positron emission tomography (PET)
▪ functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
68
The ___ is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than ___ that communicate in trillions of connections called ___.
- brain
- 100 billion nerves
- synapses
69
The ___ is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex
cortex
70
The ___ is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.
brain stem
71
The ___ are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. It coordinates messages between multiple other brain areas.
basal ganglia
72
The ___ is at the base and the back of the
brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.
cerebellum
73
The ___ lobe are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function.
frontal
73
The ___ lobe manage sensation, handwriting,
and body position. (touch, temperature, and pain)
parietal
73
The ___ lobe are involved with memory and
hearing. (hearing, taste, and smell)
temporal
74
The ___ lobe contain the brain's visual processing system. (vision)
occipital
75
The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the ___. The ___ helps protect the brain from injury.
- meninges
- skull (cranium)
76
The study of the physiological basis of cognition
Cognitive Neuroscience
77
Cognitive neuroscience is a subfield of neuroscience that studies the ___ that underlie ___, especially regarding the ___.
- biological processes
- human cognition
- relation between brain structures, activity and cognitive functions
78
Cognitive neurosciences purpose of it is to determine how the ___.
brain functions and achieves performance
79
Cognitive neuroscience is considered as a branch of both ___ because it combines the biological sciences with the behavioral sciences, such as psychiatry and psychology.
psychology and neuroscience
80
___ is an example of a biological process that influences cognition.
Decision-making
81
___, a neurotransmitter associated with feelings of ___, ___, and ___.
- Dopamine
- satisfaction, brain function, decision making
82
It refers to the idea that a topic can be studied in a number of different ways, with each approach contributing its own dimension to our understanding.
Levels of Analysis
83
We do not examine topics of interest from a single perspective; we look at them from ___.
multiple angles and different points of view
84
Each “___” can add small amounts of information that, when considered together, lead to greater understanding.
viewpoint
85
The ___is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
neurons
86
Each neuron has a ___.
cell body, an axon, and dendrites
87
___are cells within the nervous system that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
Neurons
88
The ___ contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. It contains mechanisms to keep cell alive.
cell body
89
The ___ extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals, which receive information from other neurons.
axon
90
___ are tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal to other neurons.
Dendrites
91
When they viewed this stained tissue under a microscope, they saw a network they called a ___.
nerve net
92
Spanish physiologist ___ (1852–1934) was using two techniques to investigate the nature of the nerve
net.
Ramon y Cajal (
93
Individual nerve cells transmit signals and are not continuously linked with other cells.
Neuron Doctrine
94
Adrian recorded electrical signals from single neurons using ___— small shafts of hollow glass filled with a conductive salt solution that can pick up electrical signals at the electrode tip and conduct these signals back to a recording device.
microelectrodes
95
There are two electrodes: a
___, shown with its recording tip inside
the neuron, and a ___, located some distance away so it is not affected by the electrical
signals.
-recording electrode
- reference electrode
96
This value, which stays the same as long as there are no signals in the neuron, is called the ___.
resting potential
97
When the neuron’s
receptor is stimulated so that a ___ is transmitted down the axon
nerve impulse
98
As the impulse continues past the electrode, the charge inside the fiber reverses course and starts becoming negative again, until it returns to the resting potential.
action potential, which lasts about 1 millisecond
99
Everything a person experiences is based on ___ in the person’s nervous system.
representations
100
___ research with visual stimuli among cats.
David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel
101
The structure of the brain changes with experience.
Experience - Dependency Plasticity
102
When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain.
Hierarchical Processing
103
The problem of neural representation for the senses has been called the ___.
problem of sensory coding
104
___ refers to how neurons represent various characteristics of the environment.
Sensory code
105
Types of Sensory Coding
- Specificity Coding
- Population Coding
- Sparse Coding
106
Representation of a stimulus by the firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to respond
only to a specific stimulus
Specificity Codes
107
Representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons
Population Coding
108
Representation of a stimulus by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent
Sparse Coding
109
___ (3-mm-thick layer covering the brain) contains mechanisms responsible for most cognitive functions.
Cerebral cortex
110
Measures neural activity by identifying highly oxygenated hemoglobin molecules
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
111
Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize
faces). Respond specifically to faces.
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
112
Responds specifically to
places (indoor/outdoor scenes).
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
113
Responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies. It is
activated by bodies (top) but not by other stimuli (bottom).
Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)
114
The ___ is activated by places (top row) but not by other stimuli (bottom row).
Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)
115
___: structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain.
Connectome
116
The focus of ___ tends to be on performance in the workplace, hence characterizing its close linkage back to ergonomics, the study of work, and particularly cognitive ergonomics
Engineering Psychology
117
Engineering Psychology typically measures of the "big three".
- Speed
- Accuracy
- Attentional Demand
118
Engineering psychologists are quite interested in many cognitive phenomena that are not directly reflected in performance, such as the degree of learning or memory of a concept, the quality of ___ in a decision.
mental model, situation awareness, overconfidence
119
___ was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data. It draws knowledge from statistical inference, natural language processing and
other forms of data analysis.
Information Theory
120
Start by an environmental input or operator’s voluntary intention to act.
Systems Environment
121
Short-term sensory store: All sensory systems have an associated STSS to prolong the representation of the raw material for 0.05min or 2-4 sec. STSS permits environmental information to be preserved temporarily and dealt with later.
Sensory Processing
122
___ refers to processing sensory information as it is coming in. In other words, if a random picture is flashed on the screen, your eyes detect the features, your brain pieces it together, and you perceive a picture.
Bottom - up processing
123
___, on the other hand, refers to perception that is driven by cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks, so to speak.
Top - down processing
124
___ require greater time, mental effort, or attention through rehearsal, reasoning, or image processing using working memory.
Cognition operations
125
Understanding of a situation, achieved through perception and augmented by cognitive transformations, often triggers an action.
- Response Selection and Execution
126
Sensory input(s)
Stimuli
127
Stimulus having a special pattern
Signal
128
Obscuring stimuli
Noise
129
Report "yes" when signal present otherwise "no"
Task
130
The ___ curve is a graphical plot of how often false alarms (x-axis) occur versus how often hits (y- axis) occur for any level of sensitivity.
Receiver Operating Characteristic
131
When humans must identify or classify three or more stimuli at different levels of sensory evidences, this task is called ____.
absolute judgment
132
An information can be expressed in terms of ___, simply equal to the base 2 logarithm of the number of possible events.
bits (binomial digits)
133
When the amount of transmitted information is less than the stimulus information (HT < HS), it is known as ___.
information loss
134
Two types of multidimensional judgments
- Orthogonal Dimensions
- correlated Dimensions
135
Goal of Human Error in Ergonomics
Minimize human errors to maximize system performance.
136
___ - when the mechanical, electrical or other components of the design has a problem that caused the mishap
Design Deficiency
137
___ - when the machine operated incorrectly;
Equipment Malfunction
138
___ - when the material or assembly has an issue that causes it to fail
Manufacturing Defect
139
___ - when an outside factor such as the weather causes the hazardous
condition
Environmental Hazard
140
Appropriate skills and capabilities to perform required tasks
Personnel Selection
141
Helps ensure appropriate skills; can be expensive and time consuming; people may revert to original behaviors under stress.
Training
142
Preferred method; maintainability, displays & controls, feedback (error detection), user expectations; categories: exclusionary, preventative, and fail-safe.
Design
143
Visual Capabilities
- Mobility
- Accomodation
- Adaptation
- Color discrimination and perception
- Visual acuity
- Contrast sensitivity
- Perception
144
___ is the result of the relation between stimuli, rather than stimuli themselves.
Perception
145
Gestalt Grouping Principles
- Proximity or Nearness
- Similarity
- Uniform Connectedness
- Good Continuation
- Common Fate or Symmetry
- Closure
146
Pictorial Perception
- Depth
- Aerial Perspective
- Shading and Lighting
- Elevation
- Relative Size
147
When conflicting or simultaneous information occurs through the different senses, the visual system often determines what we perceive
Displays
148
Initial decision in display design: ____
to use visual or auditory displays
149
Indicates existence of a condition
Check Display
150
Indicates status, approximate value or trend of a changing value
Qualitative Display
151
Indicates an exact numerical value that must be read or that must be determined.
Quantitative Displays
152
Used to convey detailed information
Alphanumeric Displays
153
Extensively used for facilities. Identifiable, as simple and as symmetric as possible
Symbolic Displays
154
Convey exact numeric values well. Difficult to read when changing rapidly. More effort needed to determine trends
Digital Displays
155
Convey spatial information and trends effectively. Do not provide precise values. Direct depiction of the system state
Analog Display
156
Evoke immediate attention and requires immediate response
Warning
157
Evokes immediate attention and requires immediate response
Caution
158
Evokes general awareness of a marginal condition
Advisory
159
display should attract attention and located where people would be looking; prominence, novelty and relevance
Conspucuity
160
visible under all expected viewing conditions (day or night viewing, bright sunlight, etc.)
Visibility
161
optimize contrast of characters to background, using font types that are easy to read
Legibility
162
as few words as possible, no acronyms or abbreviations, telling exactly what to do
Intelligibility
163
important words, larger fonts and borderlines
Emphasis
164
use standard words and symbols whenever they exist
Standardization
165
made of materials that resist aging and wear and tear
Maintainability
166
Sound is created by ___ from some source.
vibrations
167
The ___ of a physical sound is associated with the human sensation of ___.
- frequency
- pitch
168
Sound ___ is associated with the human sensation of ___.
- intensity
- loudness
169
Frequency is expressed in ___, which is equivalent to cycles per second.
hertz (Hz)
170
Sound intensity is commonly expressed in terms of ___, based on the ratio between reference pressure level (Pr), and the pressure of interest (P).
decibels (dB)
171
___ are recommended for qualitative information, such as indication of status, or for warnings
Tonal signals
172
Principles of Auditory Displays
- Presentation
- Installation
173
Tonal signals should be ___ louder than the ambient noise.
at least 10 dB
174
It provides us with information about where our body is in space.
Vestibular System
175
Abnormality in the association of the otoconia to the cupula within the membranous labyrinth
Benign Positional Vertigo
176
Leads to a sudden profound loss in auditory and vestibular function.
Labyrinthine Infarction
177
Sudden episode of vertigo
without hearing loss in an
otherwise healthy person
Vestibular Neuronitis
178
Inner ear disorder characterized by episodic vertigo attacks, sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus, and pressure or fullness in the involved ear
Meniere's Disease
179
Inflammatory process occurring
within the membranous
labyrinth that may have a
bacterial or viral etiology.
Labyrinthitis
180
Visual auras are the most frequent type, and may come in a wide variety of phenomena or hallucinations.
Migraine
181
Vestibular system provides us with ___ about
where our body is in space.
information
182
Vestibular system is responsible for informing us whether our body is ___, how fast it is moving, and in what ___.
- stationary or moving
- direction
