EQ3- How Are The Carbon And Water Cycles Linked To The Global Climate System

Question 1

Explain the process of slash and burn farming in forests and the degradation of carbon and water cycles affect on human wellbeing

Answer 1

Is used by 500 million landless farmers in rainforests around the world for subsistence. Farmers clear 2 hectares by cutting and burning trees where the ash adds nutrients to the soil.

Fire is caused and is one of the main causes of forest loss, as drier forest decays and is destroyed by fire, emissions of aerosols and wind blown soil results in reduced air quality and human respiratory problems.

Question 2

Explain indigenous people and the degradation of carbon and water cycles affect on human well being

Answer 2

Indigenous people live in forests and rely upon it to live their life. The Efe tribe in Congo build the houses out of wood and leaves, would for cooking, hunts monkey for meat and fish the rivers, gather yam and nuts and use plants to make medicine

The palm oil industry has driven away indigenous people to meet the growing demand for palm oil

Question 3

Explain the Kuznet’s curve and the different stages

Answer 3

Is based on economic principles. It suggests that as a country develops and enters stage one, damage to the natural environment will increase, as resources are exploited and pollution and degradation increases. As a country develops to stage two concern at environmental degradation leads to action to protect the environment. At stage three at high levels of development, education programs and funding occurs for environmental protection

Question 4

Explain Indonesia’s forest moratorium

Answer 4

Aimed at reducing deforestation, with $1 billion of funding from the UN and Norwegian government.
The moratorium stopped issuing permits for the clearance of primary forests or peatland for timber and palm oil. In two years, emissions have fallen by between one and 2.5% and targets were set to reduce CO2 emissions by 26%.
However clearance payments that had already have been issued before the moratorium went ahead. Illegal logging remains a problem and has only reduced first loss by 15%

Question 5

Explain the global expansion of forest areas

Answer 5

Between 2010 and 2015, 7.6 million hectares of forest we lost every year and 4.3 million hectors gained. The 3.3 million net annual loss was half of that in 1990

The temperate forest area has increased (Covering many HIC’s) although the tropical forest area has decreased (covering many LIC’s). Rates of forest loss of highest in low income countries

China aims to increase its forested area by 23% between 2015 and 2020

Brazil has halved it’s rate of deforestation since 2000

Question 6

Define Land conversion

Answer 6

Any change from natural ecosystems to an alternative use, it usually reduces carbon and water stores and soil health

Question 7

Explain the main drivers of deforestation

Answer 7

Due to increasing demand for commodity production. Most deforestation is for soy, palm oil, paper production and energy

Question 8

Where in the world are levels of deforestation highest

Answer 8

Are highest in Indonesia and Brazil, both with an above 500,000 hectare loss and both tropical rainforest.

Question 9

What were the main drivers of deforestation in Madagascar

Answer 9

Madagascar’s tropical rainforest has been cleared at a rapid rate, due to small scale clearance farming and growing international demand for tropical hardwood. Madagascar comply due to debt repayments.

Question 10

Explain the implications to the carbon cycle, water cycle and soil health of deforestation

Answer 10

Has a major impact on the size of terrestrial stores, CO2 is released from decaying woody material , there is an increased carbon influx to the atmosphere from burning and the decaying of vegetation.
Soil erosion leads to a loss of nutrients and a large carbon store
Biomass is lost due to photosynthesis
The atmosphere becomes drier and there is reduced evapotranspiration

Question 11

Where in the world are levels of afforestation highest

Answer 11

Highest in the USA and India. These countries are in stage 3 of the Kuznet’s curve model meaning they are at the stage of development where they now consider their impact on the environment

Question 12

Why can afforestation be controversial

Answer 12

Is controversial in its impacts on landscape character. Often stores less carbon, uses more water and is disease prone.
However afforestation does sequester carbon

Question 13

Where in the world has grassland conversion taken place for farming

Answer 13

Occurred in temperate grasslands, like the Savannah. Has fertile chernozem soil, an important carbon store, and is used for agriculture

Question 14

Why are grasslands being converted for farming

Answer 14

Rapid increases in population has led to a high demand for food and resources

Question 15

Why was there a big biofuel change in the US that lead to grassland conversion

Answer 15

Farmers were encouraged to grow corn, soya and canola due to the pressures of the US environmental protection agency

Question 16

What are the implications for the carbon cycle from grassland conversion

Answer 16

The initial removal of grasslands releases CO2 from soils into the atmosphere
Annual ploughing enables soil bacteria to release CO2
Biofuel requires carbon based fertiliser producing a net increase in CO2
Soils are liable to erosion by runoff

Question 17

Explain why physical factors can cause uncertainty in the projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations.

Answer 17

Oceans and forests act as carbon sinks and store heat. Ocean’s take decades to respond to changes in greenhouse gases concentrations , therefore accurately projecting future CO2 concentrations is difficult.

Question 18

Explain why human factors cause uncertainty in the projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Answer 18

In many HIC’s we are observing forest gain but in many LIC’s we are observing forest loss, following Kuzent’s curve. Human factors such as population growth, economic growth and energy sources will have a huge influence on rates of deforestation in the future and this in turn will impact on future CO2 concentrations

Question 19

Explain how positive feedback mechanisms (3) can cause uncertainty in the projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Answer 19

Permafrost stores a huge amount of carbon and methane. When permafrost melts, due to increased temperatures, it releases trapped CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere, increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and leading to further melting and increased temperatures, acting in a positive feedback loop amplifying change.

Peatlands store large amounts of carbon due to a low rate of decomposition in clogged waterlogged soil. Current and future warming causes peat to dry out as water tables fall, increasing the rate of decomposition and emitting carbon into the atmosphere as methane.

Reduced albedo of solar radiation by the earth’s surface as a snow and ice melt, darker surfaces absorb more heat energy and release methane.

The lack of control we have to limit these positive feedback mechanisms cause uncertainty in the projections of the extent it can reach and it’s effect on CO2 concentration.

Question 20

Explain how negative feedback(3) causes uncertainty in projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Answer 20

Negative feedback naturally occurs to counteract the substantial effect of positive feedback mechanisms.

Increased cloud cover, due to higher rates of evaporation, will reflect solar energy, leading to lower temperatures and stable stores of carbon in permafrost and ice.

Increased plant growth as a result of higher CO2 concentrations will result in increased carbon stores in plants.

Dust from drier climates could enter the atmosphere and reduce the amount of incoming solar radiation.

The uncertainty with negative feedback mechanisms is that we are unable to project the extent to which negative feedback will counteract positive feedback and therefore reduce atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Question 21

Explain how tipping points (2) cause uncertainty in the projection of future atmospheric CO2 concentration

Answer 21

There are seven tipping points identified by the IPCC, which are abrupt, possibly irreversible and large scale over a few decades

Forest die back is occurring in the Amazon rainforest, if it is subject to drought trees will die back and the point is reached where there is further die back due to trees no longer absorbing enough CO2 from the atmosphere. It is also occurring in the boreal forest where hot and dry summers leads to water stress and cause trees to die.

Changes to the thermohaline circulation – to keep the belt of warm water heading from the tropics towards Britain heavy, salty water must sink in the north. However the melting point of Northern ice sheets releases significant quantities of freshwater into the ocean which is less salty and thus blocking and slowing the belt. As Ice Sheets melt the ocean circulation is susceptible to a critical tipping point, a collapse in a thermohaline circulation may affect global temperatures.

Uncertainty over when these tipping points will be reached and the impact that they will have has caused uncertainty in future atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Question 22

Explain water conservation and management as a adaption strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and drawbacks

Answer 22

Conservation and management of river water in relation to climate change, to manage limited supplies. Includes: smart irrigation and recycled sewage water for agricultural use.

Has been seen in Northern China, The Mekong river basin, where there is high demand for water due to agriculture. Water saving irrigation has been introduced in area’s of high demand.

B
In Northern China they have reduced water consumption by 12%

D
Can cause conflict between countries- In Israel water conservation and management has caused conflict with Palestine over water.

Question 23

Explain Resilient agricultural systems as a adaption strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and Drawbacks

Answer 23

Involves growing crops using a ploughing approach, using fewer fertilisers and growing cover crops. Also involves strategies of growing crops designed to withstand higher temperatures.

Has been seen in Northern China, where early or late planting of plant crops has been introduced to withstand high temperatures.

B
Uses fewer fertilisers
Increased income for farmers
Improved soil structure and health
Erosion control
In China, Maze yields increased by 15% with doubled grassland productivity and increased plant species.

D
Some parts of the world do not have the education, training or money to use this strategy

Question 24

Explain Land use planning and Flood risk management as a adaption strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and Drawbacks

Answer 24

Area’s of increased risk, such as costal or river areas, can be zoned through urban planning and laws to prevent people and valuable property from being developed and instead low impact things like parks are placed there.

In Australia they are making all houses on floodplains more flood resistant, with raised floors, stronger foundations and water resistant materials. Reservoir levels are closely monitored to anticipate inundations and release water at safe levels.

B
Is a low cost approach to flood management
Reduces the human impact of flooding
Allows infiltration to occur naturally, reducing surface run off.

D
There is a high cost involved with relocating people
Reduces property values in rezoned areas
Locals will contest changes

Question 25

Explain Solar radiation management as a adaption strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and drawbacks

Answer 25

Is a form of climate engineering, which aims to reflect solar rays and reduce global warming. Involves spraying seawater into the atmosphere, pumping sulphur aerosols into the atmosphere, cloud brightening and space based reflectors.

No examples as it has not yet been done

B
These techniques could be deployed relatively quickly.
Offset some of the effects of greenhouse gases

D
May cause unpredictable weather changes (reduced precipitation and evaporation)
Very expensive
Uncertainty about how effective it would be
All countries have to agree

Question 26

Explain Carbon Taxation as a mitigation strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and Drawbacks

Answer 26

Government taxes can encourage people and businesses to reduce carbon emissions, including congestion charges, road tolls and reduced taxes for lower emission vehicle.

Seen in the UK, where high emission vehicles are highly taxed and London has a congestion charge and low emission zone.

B
In the UK, taxes on fertiliser has reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Taxes can be reinvested to further reduce CO2 emissions

D
It won’t guarantee a reduction in CO2 emissions
The tax may not be high enough to reduce the use of high emission technology and vehicles.

Question 27

Explain Renewable energy and energy efficiency as a mitigation strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and drawbacks

Answer 27

A shift in focus from high emission fossil fuels to lower emission renewable energy methods.

In Germany, they require residential and commercial buildings to reduce energy consumption by 25%, they give loans to renovate old energy consuming properties and give subsidies to improve efficiencies in manufacturing.

B
In Germany economic growth has still occurred whilst increasing it’s efficiency and reducing it’s emissions.
There is a variety of different renewable methods that can be used in different climates.

D
Expensive to implement
Limited in the amount of energy it produces
Some countries still have an abundant of fossil fuels still available

Question 28

Explain afforestation as a mitigation strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and drawbacks

Answer 28

Forests are an important carbon store, afforestation involves planting more trees in order to absorb more CO2.

In South Korea, the government made forest rehabilitation a priority. The amount of forested land rose from 4 to 6.3 million hectares and now 2/3 of South Korea is now forested.

B
Restoration of degraded environments
Prevention of soil erosion
Increased forest sinks and stores of CO2
In Tanzania, 20 years afforestation would remove 160,000 tonnes of CO2 per year.

D
Can result in the reduction of species diversity
Is expensive and unattractive

Question 29

Explain Carbon Capture Storage as a mitigation strategy for climate change

Exemplification

Benefits and Drawbacks

Answer 29

Involves capturing CO2 released by the burning of fossil fuels and burying it deep underground, injected through pipelines into liquid form.

Canada opened it at a cost of $1.3 billion, ensuring that there is a net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere.

B
Could cut global CO2 emissions by up to 19%
In Canada it reduced emissions by 90%

D
Very expensive 
Possibility of CO2 leakage affecting human health
Increased water usage
Small earthquakes

Question 30

Explain Ocean Acidification

How is it caused

What is it’s effect

Answer 30

Occurs where an increase in the amount of CO2 in the ocean causes the pH to decrease, making it more acidic.

This is caused by the large amounts of CO2 oceans absorb, 30% of the CO2 produced as a result of human activity.

As the ocean becomes more acidic corals cannot absorb the alkaline calcium carbonate needed to maintain their skeletons, so begin to dissolve. Increased atmospheric CO2 limits growth in the ocean

Question 31

Explain the process of coral bleaching

Why does it happen

Future projections

Answer 31

Occurs when water becomes too warm. Algae, which provides food to the coral through photosynthesis, is ejected. The coral then turns white.

The biggest cause of coal bleaching is due to climate change, which raises ocean temperatures

If CO2 omissions continue at their current rate, by 2100 cruel skeletons would have dissolved and the reefs would have disintegrated

Question 32

Explain why corals matter (4)

Answer 32

Shelter 25% of marine species

Protect shorelines

Support fishing industries

Provide income from tourism

Question 33

Explain how an increase in drought frequency may affect forests as carbon stores

Answer 33

Droughts have a major effect on forests and their ability to be a carbon sink, more frequent droughts due to global warming will further hampered its ability.

Droughts seriously affect soils, causing the moisture and organic matter to be lost. This prevents soil from being a carbon sink and instead emits carbon. Soils store 3x more carbon than vegetation.

Droughts also have a impact on tree health. Drought to prevent water transport which impairs vegetation is ability to photosynthesise, tree death prevents the store of carbon and also leads to forest fires.

Question 34

Explain how increased droughts in the Amazon are affecting it’s performance as a carbon store

Answer 34

Three droughts have occurred over the course of 10 years in the Amazon

This has caused growth rates to the client, shutting down its function as a store, but also forest fires which burnt trees and litter and released more CO2.

Due to drought the Amazon has gone from a carbon sink to a carbon source, emitting 5 billion tons of CO2 in 2005 and 8billion tonnes in 2010.

The frequent mega disasters in the Amazon has prevented its ability to recover, due to the fact that vegetation takes six years plus to grow back.

Question 35

Explain the positive feedback droughts cause on forests ability to be a carbon store.

Answer 35

Droughts and human activities need to treat death, this causes rising atmospheric CO2 which then leads to global warming and severe drought. Consequently this causes forest fires and tree death. This cycle continues and is amplified to cause major changes the forest biomes and their ability to sequester carbon.

Question 36

Explain the effects climate change will have on the fishing industry in costal communities in developing countries

Answer 36

People in developing countries rely on fishing for income and food

The mangrove forests, found in tropical coasts of africa and asia, provide nurseries for costal fish to grow and develop. They play a vital role in maintaining the food web and providing a supply for fishing. CC has seen 50% of mangroves lost, allowing predators to prey on small fish and reduce the supply of fish.

520 million of the world’s poorest people depend on fishing for food and income. Makes up 6% of the Maldives and St. Lucia’s GDP.

CC has reduced the quality of fish. Ocean acidification has occurred, where the amount of CO2 sequestered is too large, making it acidic. The effects of this is seem in Fiji , where human health is being affected by warmer seawater leading to fish eating toxic algae , poisoning people when they eat fish

Question 37

Explain the effects climate change will have on the costal protection of costal communities in developing countries

Answer 37

Over 200 million people in costal areas, like Hawaii, are protected from waves by fringing coral reefs . Due to CC coral bleaching is occurring, where warm waters cause algae to be ejected and the coral turns white. This lack of protection has substantial impacts on small islands in the Caribbean and Pacific, who cannot afford extensive hard engineering defences.

The mangrove forests stabilise coastlines against erosion, collect nutrient rich sediment and provide protection against extreme weather

Question 38

Explain the effects climate change will have on the tourism industry in costal communities in developing countries

Answer 38

Coral reefs provide a multi billion dollar industry for local businesses and global tourism chains. In the Maldives, 220,000 people are reliant on corals to attract and a new influx of 1 million tourists. Climate change would reduce the attractiveness of these areas due to coral bleaching. In Fiji, coral reef degradation will cause losses of $5-14 million a year by 2050