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THE CARBON CYCLE AND ENERGY SECURITY > EQ2: What are the consequences for people and the environment of our increasing demand for energy? > Flashcards

EQ2: What are the consequences for people and the environment of our increasing demand for energy? Flashcards

1
Q

What is a key goal for countries?

A

Energy security, with most relying on fossil fuels.

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2
Q

What countries have an extremely high energy use?

A
  • USA and Canada (mostly North America)
  • Australia
  • Parts of the Middle East e.g Saudi Arabia
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3
Q

Why do USA have high energy use?

A
  • More car ownership
  • More infrastructure requires more energy
  • Not a lot of environmental consciousness
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4
Q

Why does Saudi Arabia have high energy use?

A
  • Huge oil reserves, so their use tends to be higher.
  • Price of oil is lower because they have their own domestic supply.
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5
Q

What countries have moderately high energy consumption?

A

Russia and China

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6
Q

What countries have moderately low energy consumption?

A

Africa and South America

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7
Q

Why do some counties have low energy consumption?

A

Less developed so less energy consumption.

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8
Q

Link between GDP and energy consumption

A

Generally the higher the GDP per capita, the higher energy use e.g USA

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9
Q

When is energy security achieved?

A

When there is an uninterrupted availability of energy at a national level and at an affordable price.

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10
Q

When is the most secure energy situation?

A

Where the national demand for energy can be completely satisfied by domestic sources. Like autarky.

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11
Q

Four key aspects of energy security

A
  • availability
  • accessibility
  • affordability - competitively priced energy supply
  • reliability - uninterrupted
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12
Q

Why is energy vital to the functioning of a country?

A
  • powers most forms of transport
  • lights settlements
  • used by some types of commercial agriculture
  • warms/cools homes and powers domestic appliances
  • vital to modern communications
  • drives most forms of manufacturing
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13
Q

Consumption of energy is measured in what two ways?

A
  • in per capita terms (this measure rises with economic development)
  • energy intensity, units of GDP (the fewer the units of energy, the more efficiently a country is using its energy supply)
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14
Q

What is the energy mix of a country?

A

An energy mix describes the range and combination of sources required to supply a country with energy.

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15
Q

Resources can be produced within a country (domestic) and…

A

imported from another country (foreign)

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16
Q

What has the global energy mix been dominated by for a long time?

A

Non-renewable fossil fuels, especially crude oil and coal

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17
Q

Why might the energy transition to less polluting and more sustainable energy be slow?

A

New technologies need to be developed, and current energy pathways, with trade based on established geopolitical links, are not east to break.

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18
Q

What does energy mix depend on?

A

What’s available most easily, cheaply, effectively or securely.

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19
Q

What is primary energy?

A

Refers to natural energy resources that have not been converted into another form of energy. Includes non-renewable energy resources such as fossil fuels (crude oil, coal, natural gas) and nuclear (uranium) and renewables such as hydro, biomass/biofuels, solar and wind.

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20
Q

What is secondary energy?

A

Refers to what the primary source has been converted into, usually electricity. Usually more convenient.

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21
Q

What does the term “power generation mix” refer to?

A

The combination of energy resources used to create electricity.

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22
Q

What is the world’s energy mix mostly made up of? (as of 2012-14)

A

Coal, oil and natural gas

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23
Q

USA primary energy mix 2012-14

A

Mostly oil and natural gas

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24
Q

Germany primary energy mix 2012-14

A

Mostly oil, natural gas, and lignite

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25
Q

China primary energy mix 2012-14

A

Mostly coal, small percentage is oil

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26
Q

7 factors affecting a country’s energy mix

A
  1. The availability of primary energy resources within the country, including levels of technology to extract and use them.
  2. The accessibility of primary energy resources from outside the country.
  3. The real or perceived energy needs of the country, based on lifestyles, economic development or climate.
  4. Changing energy consumption patterns, perhaps linked to population or economic growth.
  5. National and regional policies that affect energy production and consumption, such as legislation related to the natural environment (climate change targets).
  6. Cultural and historical legacies regarding energy use and geopolitical links.
  7. The financial costs of each energy option.
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27
Q

What place has the world’s largest oil reserves and the largest production?

A

The Middle East

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28
Q

What countries are major oil producers?

A

Partly because of the high demand from their industries and transport.

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29
Q

Venezuela, Mexico and Nigeria also have significant oil reserves, what can revenue from oil exports help?

A

Their economic development.

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30
Q

Where are the biggest trading pathways into?

A

Europe and USA.

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31
Q

Why are Europe and the USA the largest consumers of oil?

A

Due to the many vehicles and industries and many wealthy consumers who can afford to use the resource.

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32
Q

What has made the UK increasingly dependent on imported energy?

A

Declining domestic North Sea oil and gas reserves.

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33
Q

How does the UK have an energy deficit?

A

Because the UK now imports more energy than it produces domestically, the country now has an energy deficit and it energy insecure.

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34
Q

Despite economic and population growth in the UK and the adoption of energy saving technologies, what happened?

A

The UK consumed less energy in 2015 than in 1998. More of its energy also came from renewable sources.

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35
Q

UK reliance on energy

A

Reliance an imported energy has grown since 2004.

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36
Q

UK net exporter

A

UK became a net exporter of energy in 1981 due to North Sea oil and gas development.

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37
Q

UK net importer

A

UK became a net importer again for a short period after the 1988 Piper Alpha oil rig explosion.

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38
Q

When did North Sea production peak? (UK as net exporter)

A

1999

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39
Q

Define net exporter

A

A country that exports more than it imports

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40
Q

Define net importer

A

A country that imports more than it exports

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41
Q

Who is the biggest provider of oil and natural gas to the UK?

A

Norway

Location important - UK is close to Norway.

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42
Q

Benefits of crude oil exploitation

A
  • Can be sold to bring wealth to a country and people
  • Can support industry, even in an economic recession
  • Has brought a culture based on freedom of movement
  • Money from oil can be invested in finding the next flexible energy resources
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43
Q

Problems of crude oil exploitation

A
  • Burning releases CO₂ which contributes to climate warming
  • Burning releases nitrous oxide which contributes to acid rain
  • Wars have been fought over oil
  • Fluctuations in the cost of the resource have caused recession and inflation
  • Oil is finite and will run out in the 21st century
  • Oil spills may damage the natural environment e.g the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill
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44
Q

Access to and consumption of energy resources depends upon…

A

physical availability, cost, technology, public perception, level of economic development and economic priorities

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45
Q

How does oil consumption depend on energy policies?

A

For some, energy policy will be taking the cheapest route to meeting the nation’s energy needs, regardless of the environmental costs. Others will seek to increase their reliance on renewable sources of energy; while others seek policies that raise energy efficiency and energy saving

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46
Q

How does energy consumption depend on climate?

A

Very high levels of consumption in North America, the Middle East and Australia reflect the extra energy needed to make the extremes of heat and cold more comfortable (at home, at work and in public places).

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47
Q

How does energy consumption depend on public perception?

A

For some consumers, energy is perceived almost as a human right and therefore to be used with little or no regard for the environmental consequences. Others give priority to minimising the wastage of energy and maximising security.

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48
Q

USA vs France

A

Total energy consumption in France is only one-tenth that of the USA.

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49
Q

What can difference between energy consumption in France and USA be explained by?

A

The difference is largely explained by differences in population - 331.9 million in the USA compared with 67.5 million in France (as of 2021).

50
Q

In per capita terms, where is USA and France?

A

The USA tops the rankings whilst France is placed sixth.

51
Q

How much of USA’s energy comes from fossil fuels?

A

Over three quarters of energy comes from fossil fuels.

52
Q

How is French energy mix different to USA?

A

Only half its energy comes from fossil fuels and around 40% comes from nuclear energy.

53
Q

Energy security of France vs USA

A

France is much less well placed than the USA, because nearly half of its primary energy is imported. The USA is much more self-sufficient.

54
Q

UK - physical availability

A
  • Until the 1970s, the UK depended heavily on domestic coal from Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, South Wales and north-east England.
  • It was also among global leaders in nuclear technology from the 1950s-1970s, but lost momentum after the discovery of large reserves of North Sea oil and gas, whose increased use after the 1970s greatly altered the UK’s energy mix.
55
Q

Norway - physical availability

A
  • Because Norway is mountainous, with steep valleys and plentiful rainfall, HEP is the natural energy choice.
  • Much of the oil and natural gas in Norway’s territorial waters is exported (e.g to the UK)
  • Coal from Svalbard (a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean) is also exported.
56
Q

UK - cost

A
  • The North Sea reserves became a “secure” alternative to dependency on Middle Eastern oil, after prices there rose in the early 1970s.
  • However, North Sea oil is expensive to extract, so if global prices fall (as they did in 1997-8 and 2014-5), it becomes less viable.
  • Stocks of North Sea oil and gas are also declining, which is forcing the UK to import more.
57
Q

Why did North Sea reserves become important for the UK?

A

The North Sea reserves became a “secure” alternative to dependency on Middle Eastern oil, after prices there rose in the early 1970s.

58
Q

Norway - cost

A
  • Norsk Hydro runs over 600 HEP sites, which supply 97.5% of Norway’s renewable energy.
  • HEP costs are low once capital investment is complete. However, the transfer of electricity from HEP production in remote regions to urban population centres and isolated settlements is expensive.
59
Q

UK - technology

A
  • There are 150 years’ worth of coal reserves left in the UK, but current technology and environmental policy makes its extraction and use unrealistic and expensive.
  • The UK’s last deep coal mine closed in 2015, although 80% of the UK’s primary energy still came from fossil fuels. The technology exists for “clean coal” but coal has lost its political support.
60
Q

Norway - technology

A

Deepwater drilling technology enabled both Norway and the UK to develop North Sea oil and gas extraction.

61
Q

UK - political considerations

A
  • The increasing reliance on imported energy sources affects the UK’s energy security, and this has become a political issue.
  • However, public concern is also growing over new and proposed fracking and nuclear sites.
  • The privatisation of the UK’s energy supply industry in the 1980s now means that overseas companies (e.g France’s EDF and Germany’s E-on) decide which energy sources are used to meet UK demand. They buy primary energy on international markets.
62
Q

Norway - political considerations

A
  • HEP has been used since 1907, and the Norwegian Water and Energy Directorate manages the nation’s power supply.
  • The Norwegian government has an interventionist approach, which prevents foreign companies from owning any primary energy source sites - waterfalls, mines, forests.
  • Royalties and taxes paid into the government from the sale of fossil fuel boost the standard of living through government spending, but profits also go to a sovereign wealth fund to prepare a future without fossil fuels and investment in environmentally sustainable projects.
63
Q

What has the privatisation of the UK’s energy supply industry in the 1980s meant?

A

That overseas companies (e.g France’s EDF and Germany’s E-on) decide which energy sources are used to meet UK demand. They buy primary energy on international markets.

64
Q

Who manages Norway’s HEP power supply?

A

The Norwegian Water and Energy Directorate

65
Q

UK - level of economic development

A

GDP per capita (PPP) = US$ 41,200 (2015)
Energy use per capita = 2,752kg (2014)
Avg. annual house energy costs = £1,300 (2015)

66
Q

Norway - level of economic development

A

GDP per capita (PPP) = US$ 61,500 (2015)
Energy use per capita = 5,854kg (2014)
Avg. annual house energy costs = £2,400 (2015)

67
Q

UK - environmental properties

A
  • In 2015, the UK committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to 1990 levels.
  • It intends to broaden its energy mix with renewable sources (especially wind) and nuclear power.
  • However, the UK also abandoned its “Green Deal” conservation and insulation schemes in 2015.
  • In 2015, the UK’s CO₂ emissions were 7.13 tonnes per capita (down from a peak of 11.5 in 1980).
68
Q

Norway - environmental properties

A
  • In 2015, Norway committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to 1990 levels.
  • Norway is the third largest exporter of hydrocarbons and is expanding its output.
  • Norway’s “Policy for Change” was launched in 2016, with a domestic target of being carbon neutral by 2050.
  • In 2015, Norway’s CO₂ emissions were 11.74 tonnes per capita (up from 11.6 tonnes in 1989)
69
Q

Energy pathway

A

Describes the flow of energy between a producer and a consumer and how it reaches the consumer e.g pipeline, transmission, ship, rail

70
Q

Why is population growth regarded as one of the main causes of anthropogenic greenhouse emissions?

A

Because more people mean a higher demand for energy by households and businesses, and transport, deforestation and commercial farming all increase.

71
Q

Who are the key energy players?

A
  • TNCs
  • OPEC
  • National governments
  • Consumers
  • Scientists and engineers (whose research and development into alternative energy resources and more efficient technologies can change future energy mixes and security)
72
Q

What has the World Energy Council suggested?

A

That energy players have three objectives, but recognise that these may conflict and so will not be easy to achieve.

73
Q

What are the three objectives that the World Energy Council has suggested energy players have?

A
  • Energy security: ensuring that energy supply meets current and future demand
  • Energy equity: ensuring accessible and affordable energy for all countries
  • Environmental sustainability: ensuring efficient use of energy and use of renewable sources, so reducing pollution and moving towards lower greenhouse gas emissions
74
Q

During the “oil age”, what has energy security been threatened by?

A

Geopolitical tensions, mainly in the Middle East since the 1973 Arab-Israeli and more recent wars in Iraq and elsewhere. Tensions between the USA and Iran and the Arab uprising in North Africa and the Middle East. This attracted the involvement of the big energy players such as the USA and Russia, who wish to protect energy pathways and supples.

75
Q

Example of an oil pipeline

A

Trans-Alaskan oil pipeline

76
Q

Where do governments gain the revenues from?

A

State-owned energy TNCs such as Gazprom (Russia), Petronas (Malaysia) and Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia), and in most countries governments impose high taxes on energy use, and use the revenues to help develop the country.

77
Q

While the number of major oil spills from tankers has decreased since double hulls were introduced in the 1990s, what are there still risks of?

A

Spills from pipelines in fragile environments and from extraction activities in deeper waters, including the Arctic Ocean.

78
Q

What are governments sometimes torn between?

A

Ensuring a constant supply of energy and environmental considerations.

79
Q

State-owned energy TNCs examples

A

Gazprom (Russia)
Petronas (Malaysia)
Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia)

80
Q

Why have many governments in Europe been changing their energy mixes to renewables?

A

To meet ambitious CO₂ reduction targets.

81
Q

When did Germany start investing in renewables?

A

Germany has invested greatly in renewables since a policy change in 1990 and then again since the Fukushima disaster of 2011.

82
Q

When did China’s need for energy jump?

A

When China decided to develop its industries along more “western” economic lines, China’s need for energy jumped and the government sought resources in Africa. This increased global energy prices, because the were competing to buy the available supplies.

83
Q

When China’s growth slowed significantly in 2015, what happened?

A

Energy prices fell, demonstrating their volatility.

84
Q

Why are many governments in Europe changing their energy mixes?

A

Because of the growing population i.e more people mean a higher demand for energy by households and businesses. Also to go more renewable, and a reluctancy to use nuclear energy and industrial production. Geopolitical tensions.

85
Q

Why do governments take over control of energy production?

A

To gain revenues and re-invest to earn more money. Political control. Improves energy security and to control production. Governments can impose high taxes on energy use and use the revenues to help develop the country.

86
Q

Example of government taking over energy production and gaining revenues.

A

Coal India Ltd, the world’s largest coal producer based in Kolkata, India. India’s coal mining industry was nationalised in 1972/3 and in 2011, it became an official public service utility. The government gained from the US $2.9 billion revenues in 2013/14.

87
Q

In 2013/14, how much did the government gain from Coal India Ltd?

A

The government gained from the US $2.9 billion revenues in 2013/14.

88
Q

What does OPEC stand for?

A

The Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

89
Q

What is OPEC?

A

An intergovernmental organisation set up in 1960 to coordinate member countries’ oil policies.

90
Q

How many members of OPEC were there in 2016?

A

14 member countries in three continents, with Saudi Arabia the most important player.

91
Q

What is OPEC’s aim?

A

To create a stable income for oil-producing nations by controlling output and prices when selling to oil-consuming nations.

92
Q

How does OPEC try to achieve a stable oil market?

A

By increasing supplies from some members when supplies are disrupted from others such as Venezuela (strike), Iraq (wars), and Nigeria (civil conflict)

93
Q

OPEC controls…

A

over 40% of the world’s oil supply.

94
Q

What have member countries of OPEC done?

A

Nationalised their oil so that they are able to control output and apply export quotas on member countries to reduce supply if prices go too low.

95
Q

What suggests OPEC doesn’t have complete control?

A

The oil price gas fluctuated a great deal, suggesting OPEC doesn’t have complete control of the world market for oil, especially during times of world recession or increased demand for emerging countries. Consumption patterns also seem to operate independently of price.

96
Q

Describe Denmark’s energy mix

A

Has a diverse energy mix, with a significant proportion of combined heat and power and wind energy. Moving away from non-renewable energy.

97
Q

How much energy do wind turbines produce for Denmark?

A

Wind turbines produce about 40% of the country’s electricity.

98
Q

Since 1990, what has Denmark reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by?

A

By 30%, and plans to reach 40% by 2020.

99
Q

What has the Danish government done with Norway, Sweden and Germany?

A

Has made agreements with them to ensure energy security through transfer pathways from different sources, e.g Norway’s hydroelectric power. Denmark is passing on its experience and expertise to China, Mexico, South Africa and Vietnam.

100
Q

What approach does the Danish government believe in?

A

A holistic regulatory approach to improving energy supplies and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, using building codes, energy efficiency, investment in renewables, climate change laws, tax incentives and energy savings in the public sector.

101
Q

What are Denmark’s targets?

A
  • Generate half of its electricity from wind power by 2020
  • Eliminate coal from power generation by 2030
  • Produce all electricity and heat supply from renewables by 2035
  • Be a fossil-fuel-free society by 2050
102
Q

Major players in the world of energy

A
  • TNCs
  • OPEC
  • Energy companies
  • Consumers
  • Governments
103
Q

Major energy players TNCs

A

The big names in the oil and gas business include Gazprom, ExxonMobil, PetroChina and Royal Dutch Shell. Nearly half of the top 20 companies are state-owned (all or in part) and, therefore, very much under government control. Because of this, strictly speaking they are not TNCs.

Most are involved in a range of operations: exploring, extracting, transporting, refining and producing petrochemicals.

104
Q

Major energy players OPEC

A

OPEC has 14 member countries, which between them own about two-thirds of the world’s oil reserves. Because of this, it is in a position to control the amount of oil and gas entering the global market, as well as the prices of both commodities. OPEC has been accused of holding back production in order to drive up oil and gas prices.

105
Q

Major energy players Energy companies

A

The companies that convert primary energy (oil, gas, water, nuclear) into electricity and then distribute it. Most companies are involved in the distribution of both gas and electricity. They have considerable influence when it comes to setting consumer prices and tariffs.

106
Q

Major energy players consumers

A

Probably the most influential consumers are transport, industry and domestic users. Consumers are largely passive players when it comes to fixing energy prices.

107
Q

Major energy players governments

A

They can play a number of different roles; guardians of national energy security and can influence the sourcing of energy for geopolitical reasons.

108
Q

Reliance on fossil fuels to drive…

A

economic development is still the global norm

109
Q

Despite mounting global concern about increasing carbon emissions and their contribution to climate change, what does the world continue to do?

A

Rely on coal, oil and gas for the greater part of its energy needs.

110
Q

What is a fundamental feature of the world of energy?

A

That the distribution of fossil fuel supply and demand do not coincide.

111
Q

What is energy supply determined by? (physical geography)

A

Processes of physical geography: climate, biomass production, sedimentation, faulting, folding, continental drift…

112
Q

Oil supply

A
  • 31% Middle East
  • 20% North America
  • 12% Russia
113
Q

Oil demand

A
  • 34% Asia (12% China)
  • 24% North America
  • 20% Europe (4% Russia)
114
Q

Gas supply

A

​* 18% North America
* 15% Middle East
* 13% Russia

115
Q

Gas demand

A
  • 27% North America (22% USA)
  • 16% Asia
  • 11% Russia
  • 10% Middle East

Supply and demand match fairly well because gas is more widely distributed than oil. Asia is the main area of mismatch.

116
Q

What was the presence of coal important in?

A

Driving the Industrial Revolution and determining the location of traditional heavy industry.

117
Q

From the mid 20th century, what were countries with oil reserves doing?

A

Benefitting from the wealth resulting from the oil.

118
Q

What have emerging economies e.g China and India been responsible for since 2000?

A

Increased global energy consumption, while in 2014 energy consumption fell to its lowest level since 1985.

119
Q

Oil situation in 2014

A

Oil accounted for 32.6% of global energy consumption, but was in slow decline although production and refining remained high int he USA and the Middle East. The oil trade grew mainly because of China, which in 2013 had overtaken the USA and there world’s largest importer of oil.

120
Q

Natural gas situation in 2014

A

Natural gas accounted for 23.7% of primary energy consumption, with the USA having the world’s largest increase, but with declines in Russia, Netherlands, and the EU as a whole. Trade fell in 2014, including pipeline shipments which fell by 6.2% - the largest decline ever recorded.

121
Q

Coal situation in 2014

A

Coal’s share of global primary energy consumption declined to 30%, mainly through slower Chinese economic growth. The Ukraine and the UK had significant decreases in consumption, while India posted the largest increase (11.1%).

THE CARBON CYCLE AND ENERGY SECURITY (4 decks)

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