EQ1: What are the impacts of globalisation on international migration? Flashcards
1
Q
What is globalisation?
A
The process by which people, culture, goods, finance and information transfer between countries with few barriers. Also economic integration.
2
Q
What is an economic system?
A
An economic system is a means by which governments organise and distribute resources, services, and goods across a region or country. This includes land, capital and labour.
3
Q
What has globalisation done to migration?
A
Accelerated migration.
4
Q
IMF globalisation definition
A
Refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders. It refers to an extension beyond national borders of the same market forces that have operated for centuries at all levels of human economic activity - village markets, urban industries, or financial centres. There are also broader cultural, political and environmental dimensions of globalisation.
5
Q
Frank Lechner (The Globalisation Reader)
A
The expansion of global linkages, organisation of social life on global scale, and growth of global consciousness, hence consolidation of world society.
6
Q
What are the four types of globalisation?
A
- Economic globalisation
- Social globalisation
- Political globalisation
- Cultural globalisation
7
Q
Economic globalisation
A
- The growth of transnational corporations (TNCs) accelerates cross-border exchanged of raw materials, components, finished manufacturing goods, shares, portfolio investment and purchasing.
- Information and communications technology (ICT) supports the growth of spatial divisions of labour for firms and a more international economy.
- Online purchasing using Amazon and a smartphone.
8
Q
Social globalisation
A
- International immigration has caused extensive family networks that cross national borders - world city-societies become multi-ethnic and pluralistic.
- Global improvements in education and health can be seen over time, with rising life expectancy and literacy levels, although the changes are by no means uniform or universal.
- Social interconnectivity has grown over time thanks to the spread of “universal” connections e.g mobile phones, internet, emails.
9
Q
Political globalisation
A
- The growth of trading blocs (e.g EU, NAFTA) allows TNCs to merge and make acquisitions of firms in neighbouring countries, while reduced trade restrictions and tariffs help markets to grow.
- Global concerns such as free trade, credit crunch and the global response to natural disasters (such as 2011 Japanese tsunami).
- The World Bank, the IMF, and the WTO work internationally to harmonise national economies.
10
Q
Cultural globalisation
A
- “Successful” Western cultural traits come to dominate in some territories e.g the “Americanisation” or “McDonaldisation” of tastes and fashion.
- Globalisation and hybridisation are a more complex outcome that takes place as old local cultures merge and meld with globalising influences.
- The circulation of ideas and information has accelerated thanks to 24 hour reporting; people also keep in touch using virtual spaces such as Facebook and Twitter.
11
Q
Examples of factors that have accelerated globalisation
A
- IGOs e.g WEF, World Bank, IMF, WTO
- TNCs e.g Nike, Manchester United
- Government - trade blocs, open door policies
- Transport - containerisation, China ports
- Technology e.g fibre optics, phones
12
Q
As an independent trading nation, how many trade agreements has the UK got in place?
A
Over 70 trade agreements in place.
Recent trade agreements that have come into force:
* Singapore Digital Economy Agreement
* Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement
* Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein Free Trade Agreement
13
Q
Recent trade agreements that have come into force for the UK?
A
- Singapore Digital Economy Agreement
- Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement
- Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein Free Trade Agreement
14
Q
What has globalisation led to?
A
An increase in migration, both within countries (internal migration) and between them (international migration).
15
Q
In 2014, what did international migration see?
A
In 2014, international migration saw more than 230 million people now living in a country they were not born in.
16
Q
What do the largest labour flows do?
A
Connect neighbouring countries e.g. USA and Mexico, or Poland and Germany.
17
Q
What do modern transports networks allow?
A
Global labour flows to occur particularly with economic migration to the UK.
18
Q
Even though migration has declined between some countries, what has this meant for trade?
A
Trade has increased e.g. India and the UK.
19
Q
What 4 categories do most migrants fall into?
A
- An economic migrant
- A refugee
- An irregular migrant
- An asylum seeker
20
Q
Irregular migrant
A
A person who enters a country illegally or remains in a country without a valid visa or permit from that country, or who has overstayed the duration of a visa or whose visa has been cancelled.
21
Q
Asylum seeker
A
A person who has left their home country as a political refugee and is seeking asylum (the protection granted by a state to someone who has left their home country) in another.
22
Q
Economic migrant
A
Someone emigrating for better employment opportunities or an improved financial position.
23
Q
Refugee
A
A person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.
24
Q
What is often linked with globalisation?
A
Changes in the pattern of demand for labour at the national scale.
25
What does globalisation work on?
The principle of free flows of investment capital.
26
At a national scale, what do global systems encourage?
Rural-urban migration as cities have become economic hubs.
27
What do some trade blocs allow?
For an easier movement of people (e.g. The EU allows free movement of people). Most countries readily offer work visas to those with the skills and/or a sponsor.
28
The experience of professional club football reflects migration on a wider scale:
What has the percentage of English-born players playing in the Premier League fallen by since the start of the League?
69%
29
What enabled the free movement of European football players anywhere across the EU?
The 1995 Bosman Ruling by the European Court of Justice.
At the same time, migration laws permit entry to highly skilled individuals outside the EU with the offer of a job contract, which often includes overseas footballers.
30
What is the world's richest football league?
The Premier League
31
In reality, what has emerged rather than an English football League?
A global league
32
What do people believe that overseas football players bring to the Premier League?
More skill and talent.
33
By 2015, players from how many nations were amongst the full Premier League squads?
64 nations
34
How does the football industry reflect what is happening in the global economy?
There are freer flows of labour, capital and power.
35
Explain how globalisation and increased international migration are linked. (6 marks)
* Globalisation has had a profound impact on migration, with improving connections between states resulting in more people than ever before choosing to live and work in other countries.
* Global shift could result in an influx of workers looking for employment.
* Globalisation has resulted in development of better transportation such as trains, boats, which could increase migration levels.
36
Explain Talani's "dark side of globalisation".
* The loss of political control of international migration - whether or not globalisation induced migratory flows can be governed and by whom. The structural nature of globalisation and the emergence of a new global division of labour and power, means therefore the urge to migrate cannot be stopped by political entities.
* The "irregularisation” of international migration and the criminalisation of migrants. This entails the creation of new inequalities in labour markets, the rise of so called ‘modern slavery’, as well as the death toll that the process of migrating through irregular means inevitably produces. This substantially contributes to the antagonisation and even criminalisation of international migrants by receiving societies.
* The fact that populism is often accompanied by an explicit anti-migrant, xenophobic discourse is certainly an element of the ‘dark side’ of globalisation.
37
How is international migration regarded as beneficial for the host countries?
It allows them to cover the gaps of their labour market, complementing the skills of the local labour force and enhancing the productivity and efficiencies of their economies.
38
What has globalisation caused in the economic system?
Extremely significant changes in the economic system, changing the demand for labour; this has encouraged both rural-urban migration within countries (China) and international migration (EU-Schengen).
39
Why might some people migrate?
Some people move in search of work or economic opportunities, to join family, or to study. Others move to escape conflict, persecution, terrorism, or human rights violations. Still others move in response to the adverse effects of climate change, natural disasters, or other environmental factors. To improve quality of life.
40
What increases the opportunity to migrate?
Modern technologies and globalised connections.
41
In 2015, how many international migrants did the UN calculate there were?
More than 243 million international migrants, of which about 19.5 million were refugees.
42
What has the scale and speed of migration flows (particularly from rural to urban areas) resulted in?
* Dynamic economic growth in many countries.
* Can create unparalleled prosperity and promotes globalisation.
* Brings costs to source and host regions, including increased inequality and challenges to ideas of national identity and sovereignty.
43
What is important to human communities?
A sense of identity.
44
How is globalisation reshaping traditional ideas of nationalism and sovereignty?
Some groups benefit more than others, creating divisions and diluting loyalty.
45
International cooperation and migration have raised questions about identity and loyalty. What does this mean for national identity?
National identity is an elusive and contested concept.
46
Why are movements of people an important concern of national governments and international organisations?
They seek to facilitate some movements and limit others, such as into or within the European Union.
47
Migration subtopics
* the process of migration
* migration patterns
* the processes of globalisation
* political geography and differences between countries
* patterns of inequality
* intergovernmental organisations
* political, economic and environmental problems
* transnational ownership and multiculturalism
48
Advantages for English football attracting so many people from overseas
* High salaries for overseas players
* Overseas players bring more skill, talent, and flair to the English game
* The globalisation of football has made athletic talent a commodity - lifting barriers to movement and enhancing the lives of those who move.
* Many overseas players send remittance payments home e.g Michael Essien of Chelsea bought a house for his parents in Accra, Ghana, and Dwight Yorke of Manchester United funded education projects in his home town in Tobago.
49
Disadvantages for English football attracting so many people from overseas
* Domestic players can be "squeezed out"
* Other than contractual factors, the only control on the free movement of players is known as the "transfer window"
* The movement of football players, sometimes known as muscle drain, is deskilling African clubs of their most talented players.
50
How many African players were playing in the Premier League in September 2015?
45 African players - spread across 17 clubs
51
What's a kleptocracy?
Describes the specific corruption that occurs when state leaders, generally from poorer countries, routinely loot millions or even billions of dollars from their national treasuries. Country suffers systematic corruption and thievery by the state is a kleptocracy.
"Governments with strong tendencies towards kleptocracy can undermine food security even when harvests are good."
52
What is austerity?
Refers to spending cuts and tax rises designed to reduce government debt.
53
What do dysfunctional states do?
Behave in abnormal and undesirable ways.
54
What is peri-urban growth?
Relates to the processes of scattered and dispersive urban growth that create hybrid landscapes of fragmented and mixed urban and rural characteristics on the margins of developing countries.
55
What is often linked to changes in pattern of demand for labour and changes to the global economic system?
Globalisation
56
What areas have become manufacturers of the world?
China, India and Southeast Asia, because of investment from western countries.
57
What migration normally occurs at a national scale?
Mainly rural to urban migration occurs due to economic and industrial activity hubs in urban zones
58
What migration normally occurs at an international scale?
There is an easier movement of people as some trade blocs allow for an easier movement of people (e.g. the EU allows for free movement of people) whilst elsewhere most countries readily offer work visas to those with skills and/or a sponsor.
59
How has globalisation caused changes to the global economic system?
Has created push and pull factors to drive migration.
60
Where is rural-urban migration seen most?
In developing countries.
61
Has the global migration rate been constant since 1995?
Yes
62
What is the biggest flow between individual countries?
The steady stream from Mexico to USA
63
As well as China, where else has the largest regional migration been?
- From south-east Asia to the Middle East, driven by oil wealth and construction booms.
- There is also a significant circulation of migrants among sub-Saharan African countries.
64
What is the EU-Schengen Agreement?
A treaty which led to the creation of Europe's Schengen Area, in which internal border checks have largely been abolished.
65
History of the Schengen Agreement
Originally, the concept of free movement was to enable the European working population to freely travel and settle in any EU State, but it fell short of abolishing border controls within the Union.
A break-through was reached in 1985 in Schengen (a small village in Luxembourg), with the signing of the Agreement on the gradual abolition of checks at common borders, followed by the signing of the Convention implementing that Agreement in 1990. The implementation of the Schengen Agreements started in 1995, initially involving seven EU countries.
66
When did the Schengen Agreement take effect?
In 1995 - abolishing many of the internal border controls within the EU
67
What does the EU-Schengen Agreement actually do?
Abolished many of the internal border controls within the EU - enabling passport free movement across most EU member states.
68
How many Schengen countries are there?
27 countries - 23 EU members and 4 non-members (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein)
69
Is the UK in the Schengen area?
Britain decided to remain outside the Schengen area, even before its 2016 decision to leave the EU.
70
How many citizens does the Schengen area guarantee free movement to?
More than 400 million EU citizens
71
How has the Schengen Agreement been advantageous?
Free movement of persons enables every EU citizen to travel, work and live in an EU country without special formalities. Schengen underpins this freedom by enabling citizens to move around the Schengen Area without being subject to border checks. Guarantees free movement for business purposes, tourists, exchange students etc.
This has helped to fill job vacancies in other EU countries.
72
How many EU citizens now live in another member state?
Over 14 million - 2.8% of the EU's population
73
What are the disadvantages of the EU-Schengen Agreement?
- Some claim it gives easy access to cheaper labour (undercutting domestic workers and lowering wages), as well as allowing free movement to criminals and terrorists.
- The system is based on a treaty between sovereign states. Any changes to it would therefore require the unanimous agreement of all Schengen members, an arrangement that could prove to be inflexible (although maintaining the current common security arrangements is seen by some countries to be more important than future flexibility).
- Even within the Schengen area, the criminal laws are not consistent. Since border controls have been abolished in the region, it is more difficult to catch international drug dealers.
- Guidelines contain exemptions that make the rules less standardised and more complicated than they seem at first.
74
What did terrorist attacks in Paris 2015 prompt?
A rethink about free movement to criminals and terrorists. In 2016, six Schengen countries, Germany, France, Austria, Sweden, Denmark and Norway - reintroduced internal border controls.
75
What meets regularly to assess laxer Schengen laws?
The Schengen Executive Committee meets regularly assess the situation and formulate solutions to real or potential problems.
76
What are the benefits of rural-urban migration in China?
- allows more people to gain better jobs
- more economic flows in the centre
- improved quality of life
- jobs available for people
- the hukou system has prevented too much urban sprawl from occurring
77
What are the problems of rural-urban migration in China?
- stress on services
- China depends heavily on manufacturing and service industries in cities and the hukou system has become too restrictive
- children normally remain in rural areas while adults can move
- due to the hukou system people must be ‘registered’ and buy an expensive permit in order to move from a rural to urban region thus only accessible to the rich.
78
What percentage of the global population live outside their country of birth?
Between 3-4% of the global population - but this proportion varies greatly between countries according to their different migration policies and levels of engagement with the global economy.
79
Example of Singapore and Japan having different migration policies
Singapore is the fifth most globalise country in the world according to the KOF index and has attracted LARGE international migration flows which it seeks to manage through regulations.
By contrast, Japan is the 54th most globalised country and has placed STRICTER limits on migration.
80
Problems with Japan's strict migration limits
- Stops Japan's farms and factories from employing foreign labour.
- Stringent qualification requirements with complex rules and procedures shut out skilled foreign professionals.
81
What happened in Japan in 2008?
Japan's Liberal Democratic Party called for Japan to accept at least 10 million immigrants, but opinion polls showed that most Japanese were opposed to this and the Party went on to lose the election.
82
Japan: What did a survey by the newspaper Asahi Shimbun show?
That 65% of the respondents opposed a more open immigration policy.
83
How has globalisation led to increased migration?
Through better communications, dissemination of information through mass media and improved transport, among others. It is the increasing trade and investment flows in many regions, which facilitated interest and awareness in migration.
“The recent expansion of the global communications network – telephone connections and satellite dishes – has already had a profound effect on the consciousness of the world’s less prosperous societies. Horizons have been broadened, expectations raised and cultural differences diminished."
Globalisation has also increased economic disparities between countries - likely shake more people loose from their communities and encourage them to look abroad for work.
84
Dark side of globalisation
Some have argued that globalisation contributes to higher trafficking and smuggling of persons across borders with the proliferation of transnationals crime syndicates.
85
How could globalisation actually reduce globalisation?
Growth in trade can reduce migration through the creation of additional employment and higher growth in labour-sending countries. Increased investments by multinationals in labour-sending countries can create jobs and incomes in the home country reducing emigration pressures.
Also “The increased tradability of skill- and knowledge-intensive services opens up new opportunities for high-wage jobs in the migrant-sending countries, and can be expected to induce skilled workers to stay in their home country".
86
In 2015, what countries had the highest number of people living abroad?
India and Mexico
87
Describe Japan's situation with migration
- Falling, 27% are aged over 65 and its working population is due to fall to 44 million by 2037 (half the size it was in 2007.
- Only 1.7% of Japanese population is immigrant – the IMF research shows that advanced economies typically average at 5%.
- The UN suggests Japan needs 17 million migrants by 2050 to maintain population at 2007 levels.
- Problem? Unlike English, Japanese isn’t a global business language. Japan also has a closed-door policy to immigration (political mind set) despite concerns about the ageing population.
88
What does the UN suggest about Japan?
Suggests Japan needs 17 million migrants by 2050 to maintain population at 2007 levels.
89
What percentage of Japan is immigrant?
Only 1.7% of Japanese population is immigrant – the IMF research shows that advanced economies typically average at 5%.
90
Describe Australia's situation with migration
- For decades Australia’s immigration has been skills-based, 70% of immigrants are accepted based on skills shortages.
- Almost all immigrants live in big cities such as Melbourne.
- Australia’s immigrants are not an economic burden: on average each immigrant contributes 10% more capita to Australia’s GDP each year than non-immigrants
- Australia has an ageing population but migrants offset numbers due to retire – otherwise pressure on social care and medical care would exist, as in Japan.
91
Similarities between international migration to Australia and Japan
Both have ageing populations.
92
Differences between international migration to Australia and Japan
- Japan's population is declining. Only 1.7% of Japan's population is immigrant. Japanese isn't a global business language.
- Australia - immigration policy had been skills-based and 70% of migrants are accepted based on skills shortages. Migrants offset numbers due to retire.
93
Give an example of a migration model
The Lee model of migration - a model that accounts for push/pull factors and intervening obstacles in order to predict migration patterns.
94
Why might patterns of migration change?
In response to environmental, economic and political change in both the home and host areas.
95
What examples of environmental factors relating to migration change be?
- Natural hazards
- Pollution of water sources
- Impacts of climate change; which is making some areas drier so that water and food supplies are affected, while low lying coastal areas and small island states will flood as sea levels rise.
Environmental refugee movements are already taking place, such as from Kiribati to New Zealand, and will increase greatly by the end of the century.
96
What examples of economic factors relating to migration change be?
Reduced employment in rural areas as agriculture is mechanised, or to an increased demand for labour as urban areas industrialise
97
What examples of political events relating to migration change be?
War, civil war or state policies - can reduce barriers to migration, creating a pull factor, or may impose a barrier - such as the tiered levels of entry to the UK.
98
What does the Lee model of migration suggest?
That the decision to migrate is based on a balance of positive (push) and negative (pull) factors.
When the balance of push and pull factors is strong enough to overcome any intervening obstacles, individuals will migrate. Both voluntary and forced migrations follow this pattern.
99
What do asylum seekers apply for?
The right to international protection
100
How can the 4 types of globalisation increase migration?
- Political globalisation can lead to open door policies and membership of trade blocs. This allows people to move more easily as reduced barriers are present.
- Cultural globalisation may influence people to move to a certain area as the quality of life may be better and more convenient, these cultural ideas can be accessed by the internet which can increase connections.
- Economic globalisation refers to TNCs which provide labour so people may move for work
- Social globalisation may cause people to move through push and pull factors, and family reasons may cause people to move.
101
How many migrants arrived in Germany due to Angela Merkel's temporary open door migration policy in 2015-16?
1.3 million
102
2014-17 saw huge increases in immigration from...
North Africa and the Middle East, particularly Syria
103
In the Middle East, where did many workers from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh move to?
Qatar - to help build infrastructure for the 2022 Fifa World Cup
Dubai - to help with rapid modernisation and urban expansion
104
Examples of natural hazards that have forced people to move
Haiti's 2010 earthquake displaced 300,000 Haitians
Hurricane Matthew 2016 (southeast USA), displaced 55,000
105
What have international migration patterns done?
Changed over time
106
Examples of some significant historical migrations
- Europeans colonising the 'new world' of the Americas and Oceania
- The forced migration of Africans to the Americas - between 1500 and the end of the slave trade in the 1860s, at least 12 million Africans were forcibly taken to the Americas
- The economic migration from developing countries to European countries.
107
feWhat is likely to be the strongest factor when looking at reasons for voluntary migration?
Economic motives are always likely to be the strongest factor, such as Mexicans into the USA, but environmental and political factors are increasing in importance.
108
Example of how climate change can lead to migration
Some areas are drier, so water and food supplies are affected, while low lying coastal areas and small island states will flood as sea levels rise.
109
Example of environmental refugee movements taking place
Kiribati to New Zealand
More environmental refugees will increase greatly by the end of the century.
110
What is the world currently experiencing?
Experiencing an unprecedented level of regional conflict, with fighting in several failed states. This unrest has caused a large increase in the number of 𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝗹𝗹𝘆 𝗱𝗶𝘀𝗽𝗹𝗮𝗰𝗲𝗱 𝗽𝗲𝗼𝗽𝗹𝗲 (someone who is forced to leave their home but who remains within their country's borders).
111
Top five countries with increasing internally displaced people?
* Syria
* Colombia
* Iraq
* Sudan
* DR Congo
112
Example of increasing refugee movement
Syria to Europe
113
What are some refugees escaping persecution from?
Their ethnicity or religious beliefs e.g Burma
114
How is Burma a dangerous country for having different religious beliefs?
Burma’s population is 90% Theravada Buddhist, a faith the government embraces and promotes over Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.
Minority populations that adhere to these and other faiths are denied building permits, banned from proselytizing and pressured to convert to the majority faith. Minority populations that adhere to these and other faiths are denied building permits, banned from proselytizing and pressured to convert to the majority faith.
Rohingya Muslims, 240 of whom were killed in 2014 in clashes with Buddhist mobs. 𝗕𝘂𝗿𝗺𝗮 𝗵𝗮𝘀 𝗿𝗲𝗳𝘂𝘀𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗼 𝗴𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗰𝗶𝘁𝗶𝘇𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗵𝗶𝗽 𝘁𝗼 𝟴𝟬𝟬,𝟬𝟬𝟬 𝗥𝗼𝗵𝗶𝗻𝗴𝘆𝗮, 𝟮𝟰𝟬,𝟬𝟬𝟬 𝗼𝗳 𝘄𝗵𝗼𝗺 𝗵𝗮𝘃𝗲 𝗳𝗹𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗶𝗿 𝗵𝗼𝗺𝗲𝘀 𝗶𝗻 𝗿𝗲𝗰𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗰𝗹𝗮𝘀𝗵𝗲𝘀.
115
Many refugees seeking asylum make risky journeys. How many deaths occurred in the Mediterranean Sea between 2011 and 2015?
10,000
116
What are most migrant movements from?
Developing to developed countries
117
What percentage of the world's migrant stock (number of people born in a country other than that in which they live) was in developed countries by 2013?
58.6%
118
What might slow down migration?
Countries emerging economically - may slow as the push and pull factors will not be as strong, even though modern transport and communications has decreased the number of intervening obstacles.
119
Examples of what has decreased the number of intervening obstacles for migrants?
Modern transport and communications
120
When might developed countries be more reluctant to accept immigrants?
During economic recessions
121
What is increasing that makes countries more likely to need immigration from other countries?
The number of ageing populations - will be more in need of youth, innovation and skills migrants can bring.
122
What are the causes of migration?
Varied, complex and subject to change
123
What do most migrants move for?
Work or to rejoin family members - but there are other significant causes, such as displacement of refugees due to conflict and poverty in their regions of origin.
124
In 2015, how many migrants emigrated from North Africa and Middle East to Europe?
More than one million - in 2015, half of them were from Syria.
In 2016, more than 340,000 joined.
125
Causality
The causes of migration
126
Identity
The changing identity of populations resulting from migrations of people.
127
What places did civil war in Syria lead people to move to?
Led 2,000 each day to Greek Islands
128
Where do most North Africans migrate to?
Spain, France and Italy
129
Identify pull factors for migration (p.218)
* Good government
* Everyone respects you
* Democratic
* Freedom of speech
* Education
* More money
* Can support family by remittances
* Safe place to live
130
Identify push factors for migration (p.218)
* Not a democratic country
* Being at war
* No freedom of speech
* Threat of incarceration
* Lawlessness
* Hunger
* Poverty
* Corruption
131
Why might people moving to the UK boost its superpower status?
- Spread of soft power of culture to the people that move there
- More people in a country may make it seem stronger (hard power)
132
In 2020, how many migrants were there in the world?
281 million migrants
133
Examples of push factors
Limited job opportunities, political oppression, conflict, natural disasters, and corruption.
134
Examples of pull factors
Higher wages, better employment opportunities, a higher standard of living and educational opportunities.
135
What are the five main theories that help explain reasons for migration in a global context
* Neoclassical economic theory
* Dual labour market theory
* The new economics of labour migration
* Relative deprivation theory
* World systems theory
136
What is the neoclassical economic theory?
The most significant push/pull factors are wage differences, which cause migration flows from low-wage to high-wage areas.
137
What is the dual labour market theory?
Pull factors in developed countries bring migrant workers to fill the lowest-skilled jobs because the home population does not wish to do this work e.g cleaners
138
What is "the new economics of labour migration"?
Migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individual workers and the push and pull factors that cause migration; it is more complex, for example a household or social group in the source country may improve their living conditions by using remittances sent by family members working abroad.
139
What is the relative deprivation theory?
Awareness of income differences between neighbours in a source community is an important factor in migration. Successful migrants can afford better schooling for their children and better homes for their families, and so may serve as examples for others and encourage them to move.
140
What is the world systems theory?
Trade between countries may cause economic decline in some, encouraging people to move to a more successful country. Even after decolonisation, former colonies may remain economically dependent on the former colonial superpower, which may encourage migration along trading routes.
However, free trade may encourage people to stay in their home country if they can earn higher wages from new production processes
141
What is a significant cause of migration?
The enforced displacement of people as a result of conflict and poverty in their home regions.
142
According to the UNHCR, how many people of concern (refugees, internally displaced persons and asylum seekers) were there in West, Central and East Africa in 2016?
16 million
and a further 15 million people of concern in the Middle East
143
Define liberalism
The theory that globalisation is based on economic freedoms.
-> A political and social philosophy that promotes individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise.
144
Define neo-liberalism
A belief that globalisation is based on freer flows of people, capital and trade.
145
What are the elements of neo-liberalism?
- trade liberalisation
- the freedom to invest anywhere or transfer capital
- open borders
146
What is trade liberalisation?
Removing subsidies, tariffs, quotas and trade restrictions
147
What is the freedom to invest anywhere to transfer capital known as?
The deregulation of financial markets e.g individuals can invest without restrictions and institutions can trade without financial approval.
148
Open borders meaning
A situation in which goods and people can enter and leave a country easily - EU citizens are free to move around the EU.
149
What does economic theory suggest?
That economic efficiency is maximised when goods (free trade), capital (deregulated financial markets), and labour (open borders) can move freely across international borders,
but this poses serious challenges for national identity and sovereignty.
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Why can economic freedoms e.g free trade, deregulated financial markets and open borders, pose challenges for national identity and sovereignty?
- Some fear they could lost national identity through unrestricted flows of people, and new cultures enter a country.
- Some fear you could lose national sovereignty by being part of a tragic bloc like the EU - less ability to protect its independent law and rule of governance.
151
What is national identity?
A sense of a nation as cohesive and whole, represented by distinctive trends, culture and language.
Refers to common beliefs, experiences or values. But these can vary or time and intensity e.g war
152
How does migration affect national identity?
By bringing new cultures to to country, new foods, customs and beliefs.
153
Define sovereignty
The power of a country to control its own government - globalisation can reduce its impact
154
Rationale for encouraging migration
Migration is seen as an efficient way of ensuring that economic output of a country/place is optimised. Workers are integral to a growing economy, migration is a way of growing a country or place’s workforce.
155
How can sovereignty be linked to Brexit?
Among the reasons given by those voting to leave was a loss of sovereignty resulting from EU membership.
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Why is immigration controversial?
Can cause resentment within host populations, who may sense threats to their national identities.
157
What are the problems surrounding migration? reference violence
- Immigration is controversial and can cause resentment within host countries, who may sense threat to their national identities.
- Some migrants become victims of harassment, abuse, violence and exploitation, or the subject of hostility in the tabloid press.
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How have tensions risen in the EU?
* Extreme political parties are now becoming increasingly significant in Europe e.g Golden Dawn in Greece and France's National Front
* Since 2014, huge numbers of Syrian refugees and economic migrants have caused tensions between Greece and other Balkan countries and Turkey.
159
What percentage of people in the UK move every year? (Internally)
10% - some locally, and other from region to region
160
Is the world's population ageing?
Yes, the World Bank and the IMF reported in 2015 that half the world's population is in developed countries experiencing ageing populations and slower population growth, so migration flows might be larger as countries would require the immigration of younger skilled workers, who can also add cultural heterogeneity.
161
Rationale FOR open borders
Movement of workers: people should be able to move freely to meet skilled labour needs, minimise wage inflation, and enable a flexible and dynamic economy.
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Costs for developed countries from immigration
Increased population density, traffic congestion and higher taxes for spending on public services, housing, education and health.
The increased supply of labour may depress or stagnate wages, leading to a fall in the standard of living.
Some believe that families of immigrants just bring their own culture, rather than adopting the host culture. Community groups may exist separately, without shared loyalties, posing challenges for national identity and sovereignty.
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What is the regional movement of people in the UK often linked to?
The changing labour market
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What is the movement of labour?
Unrestricted within many nation states to ensure efficient allocation of resources and the same logic applies for some global regions but does not yet apply at a global level.
165
Does the EU encourage the unrestricted movement of labour?
Yes - supranational groupings such as the European Union have encouraged migration between member countries for the benefit of the European community.
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What does migration have an important role in determining?
The diversity of places.
Globalisation has given migrants a new perspective on the world, with internet access, mobile communications and the media providing information to allow migrants to make decisions.
London is a world city, especially globalised in the financial sector and as a home for wealthy groups, both of which create other job opportunities.
167
In 2017, how many EU citizens now live in another member state?
14 million (2.8% of the EU population)
168
How many countries reintroduced internal border controls as a result of terrorist attacks?
6 Schengen countries e.g. France and Germany
169
What can migration change within countries?
The cultural and ethnic composition of whole countries. The degree of change depends on the rate and level of assimilation of migrants into host nations.
170
Example of country where ethnic segregation has not been altered
South Africa - nearly three decades of equal rights since the abolition of the apartheid have hardly altered its ethnic composition; residential areas usually remain differentiated by skin colour.
Also London - there are different ethnic groups, but this segregation usually comes from economic and cultural factors.
171
How have cultural and economic factors in London resulted in ethnic segregation?
* Once established, cultural factors - such as the growth of specialist shops, places of worship and community leisure facilities - help to maintain these separate ethnic enclaves.
* Many West Indian immigrants in the 1950s were recruited to drive London's buses, so many of them settled near to London Transport bus garages, such as Brixton. Many of their descendants still live in the same areas.
* Cheaper rental properties in inner cities have traditionally attracted migrants to settle close to their workplaces. Over time, ethnic enclaves become permanent, such as the Hindu and Sikh communities in Southall, West London. Southall is equidistant between jobs in Central London and at Heathrow Airport, and good job opportunities have enabled these communities to thrive and buy homes and businesses.
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What has helped to produce ethnic enclaves?
Once established, cultural factors - such as the growth of specialist shops, places of worship and community leisure facilities - help to maintain these separate ethnic enclaves.
Gradually, many ethnic communities have integrated into British economic life, while at the same time retaining their cultural distinctiveness.
173
Migrations changes the cultural and ethnic composition of nation states but...
the rate of assimilation of migrants varies from nation to nation especially when there is distinctive ethnic difference.
174
What is the most diverse place within the Europe?
Inner London
followed by Luxembourg, Brussels and Outer London.
175
What is cultural fractionization?
Uses an index which measures how diverse countries are by measuring people’s attitudes towards, for example, religion, democracy and the law.
The index varies between 1 (total diversity) and 0 (no diversity) and the global average is 0.53.
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Describe Japan's economy
Its population is decreasing and ageing. A shrinking working-age population means fewer workers, a falling demand for goods, and lower taxation revenue for the government.
177
What does a growing elderly population mean for Japan?
Means increased government spending on
health and social care, plus a need for more expensive support services. That combination of demographic factors means increased government debt.
178
What are Japan's views on immigration?
Japan has a deep-rooted cultural aversion to this solution - only 1.63% of the Japanese population is immigrant, which is among the world's lowest percentages. By contrast, 14.3% of the US population is immigrant.
The Japanese hold the belief that they are a 'homogenous' people. And Japan is relatively homogenous - it's one of the few industrialised nations that didn't experience large inflows of migrants after |945. Japanese people fear that immigrants may disrupt the 'harmony and co-operation' that characterise Japanese society. Politically, the 'no-immigration' principle is widely supported.
179
What is Japanese unease with foreigners typically expressed as?
Gaijin
180
8B.3 - What are the consequences of international migration?
Varied and disputed
181
What percentage of Japan is immigrant?
Only 1.63%
182
What is Japan's ideology regarding immigration?
Immigrants disrupt the cultural cohesion. Politically, the "no immigration" principle is widely supported.
183
What is one measure of assimilation? Stats?
Proficiency in the native tongue of the host nation.
The ONS (2011 census) identified that 89% of the non-UK-born population were proficient in the English language. However, proficiency was lower among some ethnic groups.
184
Example of groups with a low proficiency I the native tongue of the host nation?
Bangladeshi-born population (70%), and varied little by length of residence. The lowest level of proficiency was among Chinese-born who had been resident in the UK for more than 30 years (62%).
185
What has an impact on the rate of assimilation?
- Proficiency in the native tongue of the host nation.
- The amount of time that migrants are resident in the host nation.
186
What factors have accelerated globalisation?
* IGOS - WEF, WB, IMF, WTO/UN
* TNCs - Man Utd, Nike, Apple, Microsoft
* Govt trade agreements - trade blocs, EPZ, open door policy.
* Transport - containerisation
* Technology - fibre optics, phones
187
EU Schengen Agreement - employment
* People can move to stronger economies.
* Migrants can fill employment gaps in the labour market e.g UK construction, social care, agriculture
* Provides an employee with choice e.g job availability, helps with job security.
* Companies can grow by setting up offices in other countries and bring staff over to upskill local workers.
Help to fill job shortages in EU countries.
* Undercuts domestic workers and lowers wages - gives easy access to cheap labour,
188
EU Schengen Agreement - migrants
* Allows them to move to a stronger economy within a trade bloc so they can earn more and send back remittances.
* Job opportunities
* Tolerance and diversities of culture. Multiculturalism.
189
What makes a superpower status?
Access to natural resources, military status and defence spending, access to natural resources, military status, economic prosperity, labour force and trade allies.
190
What are the two big superpowers in the Schengen region?
Germany and France
191
What can the route to a new life in another country be?
Fraught with difficulties
192
What dod migrants to Australia generally enter as?
Skilled workers - but they need a minimum of 65 points in Australia's points-based system. Skilled workers include professional and manual workers, with accountants and mechanic earning 60 points, while those at the lower end of the scale e.g youth workers, earn 40 points.
193
In Australia, what are points awarded on?
Depending on age, qualifications and competence in English
