EQ1 MIS Flashcards
china’s pull towards rural
- The Hukou internal passport system means that if a person leaves a rural area they forfeit their social benefits such as education and healthcare.
- Some families are forced to separate. In some cases both parents leave to work in cities and are unable to return, creating a generation of children left behind.
how many children are separated from their parents due to the hukou system?
an estimated 62 million children are separated from their parents, staying behind in rural communities in China.
Whats the frequency of reunions due to the hukou system?
The frequency of reunions between children and their parents is depressingly low; the most fortunate are the 30 percent of children who see their parents on an annual basis when they come home to visit them. The remainder go even longer between meetings.
How does the separation from the hukou system lead to negative impacts on children and their growth?
This separation puts a significant strain on relationships, parent well-being, and children’s development. Those who have to care for left-behind children, commonly grandparents, may not have the physical ability, financial means, or knowledge required to raise left-behind children adequately. Studies have shown that left-behind children have increased vulnerability to becoming a victim of human trafficking, suffer a much higher likelihood of being involved in criminality, and suffer a higher rate of depression than other children.
China’s push away from urban migration
- without urban registration documents, rural migrant workers are excluded from urban jobs.
Migrant workers living in urban areas will commonly live in makeshift dormitories in buildings, eventually scheduled for demolition.
Due to the hukou system, families that move to cities are often forced to live without the basic services and are denied access to the vast amount of resources available in cities.
China’s push away from rural migration
Rural children are subjected to deteriorating buildings, poor materials and substandard education.
In rural areas, medical clinics are few and far between a substandard level of care.
Remote areas can be cut off without paved roads and poor markets.
A deficit of jobs in rural areas means that there are very few jobs besides farming available (primary industry, low income).
China’s Pull towards urban migration
urban students attend state of the arts schools and learn from teachers.
urban areas potentially offer greater job opportunities and higher samples (ie in service industry)
most of the 362 million people living in china on less than $2 per day are from rural areas
where are the majority of people living in china who earn less than $2 a day from?
rural areas
influence of environmental change on migration
climate change is already causing refugees to leave regions where agriculture is threatened.
Syria’s refugee crisis has in part been attributed to desertification.
Rising sea levels in Tuvalu- 2000 to 2001
evaluation of importance of environmental change on migration
climate change acts to intensify rural poverty in some countries
migrants who might have previously been classed as economic migrants now become refugees, due to an increasingly hostile environment.
influence of economics on migration
The global financial crisis of 2007/8 had an unprecedented effect on migration;
for the first time since 1945, world GDP shrank
net migration from Poland fell to its lowest level since the 1950s.
evaluation of importance of economic influence on migration:
The realisation that globalisation had a reverse gear means future projections for global migration and urbanisation should be treated with caution.
Economic systems can be unstable.
Influence of political events on migration
New conflicts can unexpectedly trigger or diversify global migration flows.
On many occasions since WWII, political regime changes have prompted ethnic groups to move states.
Evaluation of importance of political influence on migration
In parts of North Africa, central Africa and the Middle East, political factors are now a more important influence on migration than globalisation.
12 million people have been displaced by Syria’s war
How many people have been displaced by Syria’s war?
Over 12 million people
Example of political influence on migration.
What is happening to Japan’s population?
Population is falling, 27% are aged 65+
how much is japan’s working age population expected to fall by 2037?
Fall by 44 million by 2037- half the size it was tin 2007
What percentage of the Japanese population are immigrants? Why is this bad?
only 1.7% immigrants, whereas the IMF research shows that advanced economies typically average 5%
what does the UN suggest that Japan needs by 2050?
17 million migrants by 2050 to maintain its population at 2007 levels.
Why aren’t people migrating to Japan?
Part of the problem is language, unlike English, Japanese is not a global business language.,
Japan also has a had a closed-door policy to immigration despite concerns about its ageing population- however they’re slowly becoming more open door due to labour shortages.
What are Japan’s demographic challenges characterised by?
A rapidly ageing population and low birth rates.
In 2023, how many births were there in Japan compared to deaths? What was the result of this?
730k recorded births, vs 1.58 million deaths, resulting in a natural population decrease of about 850k people
What has the median age in Japan risen to and what does this indicate?
49.8 years, indicating a significant proportion of elderly individuals within the population
What have the Japanese government done in response to concerning demographic trends?
The Japanese government have allocated 5.3 trillion yen (approx $34 billion) in 2024 to incentivise childbirth, focusing on childcare and education subsides. However, experts note that these measures primarily support married couples and may not fully address the concerns of young individuals who are hesitant to marry.
What do projections suggest Japan’s population could decrease to by 2070?
If current trends continue, Japan’s population could decrease by 30% to 87 million by 2070, with 40% of the population being 65 or older.
Limited work visa programmes in Japan
- why do these exist
- downside of visa
Japan has expanded its specific skilled worker (SSW) visa programmes to attract foreign workers in industries facing labour shortages, such as; healthcare, construction and agriculture. However these programmes are highly regulated and often temporary
Limited refugee acceptance in Japan
- how many people did they grant asylum to in 2023 in relativity to the amount of applicants?
- what are most humanitarian visa approvals based on?
Japan has one off the lowest refugee acceptance rates among developed nations. In 2023, Japan granted asylum to only about 200/1000s of applicants.
Most humanitarian visas approvals are based on special circumstances rather than traditional asylum criteria.
Guest work and technical intern programmes in Japan:
- why does Japan rely on these (TITP)?
- why have they been criticised
Japan has relied on TITPS to bring in foreign workers, mainly from South east Asia.
However this programmes have been criticised for labour rights abuses and low wages.
Tight pathways to permanent residency and citizenship in Japan:
- is it easy to obtain
- why does previous countries’s citizenship have to be renounced.
Japan does not have a traditional ‘immigration’ system like Western countries do.
Permanent residency is difficult to obtain, often requiring long-term residence (typically 10 years, with some exceptions).
Citizenship is rare and requires applicants to renounce their previous citizenship ship, as Japan does not allow dual nationality?
Has Japan historically had strict policies on immigration?
Yes, very strict politcies on immigration, even thought its been very involved in the global economy
Why is is hard for migrants to get a job or stay in Japan for a prolonged period of time?
The immigration control and refugee recognition act made it very difficult for international migrants to move or get jobs there, or to stay in the country for longer than a few years.
what changes did Japan make to the immigration control and refugee recognition act in June 2023?
- what does the show a balance of?
In June 2023, significant amendments were enacted to this law. One notable change permits the government to deport asylum seekers who apply for refugee status more than twice, a move that has raised concerns among human rights organizations about potential obstacles for those seeking refuge in Japan. Additionally, the revised law introduces a system of “supervisory measures,” allowing certain asylum seekers to live outside detention facilities under the supervision of approved supporters, aiming to address issues related to prolonged detentions.
These amendments reflect Japan’s ongoing efforts to reform its immigration control system while balancing humanitarian considerations.
In 2017, what percentage of the Japanese population didn’t have Japanese nationality?
in 2017, only 2.1% of the population didnt have Japanese nationality
What has Japan recently done due to concerns over its ageing population and labour shortages?
It’s loosened some of the restrictions on immigration to allow more people of working age, especially skilled workers in certain sectors like construction, healthcare and farming, to enter the country.
Breakdown of nationality percentages in Japan:
Japanese, Chinese, Korean, filipino
japanese- 97.9%
Chinese -0.6%
Korean- 0.4%
filipino- 1.1%
what is the future outlook of migration to Japan?
While Japan is slowly opening up to more foreign workers, it is unlikely to adopt large-scale migration policies like those seen in Europe or North America.
Instead, Japan is likely to continue expanding short-term work visas and creating specialised programs to meet labour demands, without significantly altering its demographic makeup.
Ultimately, only cares about its needs as a country, wants to protect national sovereignty and identity.
negatives of japans migration policies: labour shortages and economic decline
- explain
- how much is japan’s workforce expected to decline from 2022-2040 (percentage)?
- how many workers will the country lack by 2040 if continue at this rate?
Japan’s workforce is shrinking rapidly, with more people retiring than entering the labor market.
Key industries, such as elderly care, construction and agriculture struggle to find workers, slowing economic growth.
And Japan’s labour force is expected to continue to decline by 12% from 2022 to 2040, by which time it is estimated that the country will lack 11 million workers .
negatives of Japan migration policies; declining global competitiveness
Many developed nations use migration to boost innovation and entrepreneurship, but Japan risks falling behind by limiting foreign talent.
companies struggle to attract high-skilled professionals as Japan’s work culture and strict immigration rules make it less-appealing compared to the US or Europe.
negatives of Japan migration policies; exploitation of foreign workers in temporary programs
Japans TITP brings in foreign workers, but they often face low wages, poor working conditions and abuse.
Rather than true immigration, these programs act as temporary labor solutions without long-term integration.
positives of Japan migration policies; cultural and social stability
- social cohesion
Japan has maintained a strong national identity, with minimal cultural conflicts due to limited migration.
Social cohesion remains high, as the population shares a common language, traditions and values.
positives of Japan migration policies; reduced risk of social strain
- integration difficulties
Many countries with high immigration experience challenges with integration (e.g Germany with turks), housing shortages and social services pressure- issues that Japan has largely avoided.
Crime rates remain low, and there is little political division over immigration, unlike in western countries.
positives of Japan migration policies; encouragement of automation and innovation
- tech advancements
Faced with labor shortages, Japan has prioritised robotics, AI and automation in industries like manufacturing, healthcare and retail, instead of relying on migrant labor.
This has helped Japan remain a global leader in technological advancement.
Is Japan an open or closed door nation?
Japan is traditionally a closed-door country on migration, but has recently begun opening uo due to labor shortages and an ageing population.
It has introduced new visa programs to attract foreign workers, especially I industries facing labor shortages.
However, permanent residency and citizenship remain difficult to obtain, making japan’s migration policy controlled and selective rather than fully open such as the UK (western).
What does Australia’s 2024 population pyramid reflect?
A nation with a relatively young demographic profile, through it is gradually ageing.
what was Australia’s estimated resident population in 2024? How much did this increase from the previous year?
As of June 30th 2024, the estimated resident population was 27.2 million.
This marked a 2.1% increase from the previous years (2023).
What was the age distribution like in the 2024 Australia population pyramid? What does this indicate?
- children
- working adults
- seniors
- Children and adolescents (0-14 years); this groups compromises approx 18% of the population, indicating a stable base in the pyramid.
- Working adults (15-64); representing about 65% of population, this segment forms the broadest part of the pyramid, highlighting a robust labour force.
- Seniors (65+); around 17%, a proportion that has been steadily increasing, due to higher life expectancy and lower fertility rates.
what benefits and disadvantages does Australia’s population demographic present?
The ageing population presents challenges, including increased demand for healthcare services and aged care facilities. Conversely, the substantial working-age population supports economic productivity and growth.
Strategic planning is essential to address the needs of an ageing society while leveraging the benefits of a youthful workforce.
What does Australia’s 2024 median age reflect?
As of 2024, the median age was approx 38 years old.
This reflects a steady increase from 29.4 years old in 1950, indicating an ageing population (minor).
How many decades has Australia’s immigration policy been skills-based for?
4 decades.
what % of immigrants are accepted based on skills shortages? Where do immigrants tend to live?
70% of immigrants are accepted based on skills shortages where there are insufficient Australian workers (e.g in medicine and engineering). Almost all immigrants live in big cities - e.g like Melbourne.
what % do immigrants contribute to Australia’s GDP compared to non-immigrants?
Rather than being an economic problem, Australia’s immigrants each contribute 10% more per capita to Australia’s GDP each year than non-immigrants.
Between 2015 and 2050, how much are skilled immigrants expected to add to Australia’s GDP?
US $1.2 trillion
How are immigrants beneficial demographically in Australia?
Australia’s median age is 38, however migrants tend to be younger. 88% are under 40 (compared to 54% of resident Australians) and 50% are aged 20-34 (contrasting the 20% of resident Australians).
Due to the ageing population, migrants offset the numbers due to retire, which would otherwise place increasing pressure on the costs of medical and social care (as evident in Japan).
temporary migration and working visas in Australia
temporary visas- such as the temporary skill shortage visa- allow skilled workers to stay for a limited period.
Australia also offers working holiday visas, for young travellers who wish to work whilst visiting.
Humanitarian and refugee program in Australia
How can refugees apply for these?
Australia has a strict but structured refugee program, accepting a limited number of refugees under its humanitarian intake.
Refugees can apply under the offshore resettlement program or through onshore asylum claims (if they arrive in Australia).
Border protection and Asylum seekers in Australia
what happens to unauthorised arrivals?
Australia has a string border security stance, particularly against unauthorised boat arrivals.
Under operation sovereign borders, unauthorised maritime arrivals are turned back or sent to offshore detention centres (e.g, Nauru, Papua New Guinea).
The government argues this policy deters dangerous boat journeys and reduces human trafficking.
recent developments and trends in Australia’s migration
Australia has been adjusting its migration policies in response to labour shortages and economic needs.
There are ongoing discussions about increasing skilled migration to address workforce gaps, especially in sectors like healthcare and construction.
The government is also reviewing international student visa policies to ensure students contribute to the economy.
what type of approach does Australia have to migration?
Australia has a structured but strict approach to migration, balancing economic needs, humanitarian commitments and border security. The country prioritises skilled migration to boost its workforce, while also allowing reunification and humanitarian resettlement for refugees.
what happens to unauthorised arrivals in Australia?
Australia enforced strong border protection policies, including offshore detention for unauthorised arrivals, to deter irregular migration.
what do recent trends in Australia’s migration(to) highlight?
Recent trends indicate a focus on increasing skilled migration to address labour shortages, while tightening rules for temporary and student visas.
what’s the aim of Australias migration policy?
Overall, Australia’s migration policy aims to support economic growth while maintaining national security and orderly migration.
positives of Australia migration policy- economic growth and skilled workforce
the skilled migration program helps fill labor shortages in key industries like healthcare, construction and technology.
Migrants contribute to tax revenue and economic growth.
positives of Australia migration policy- strong border security
strict border policies, like operation sovereign borders, have significantly reduced illegal boat arrivals and human trafficking. This approach prevents dangerous sea journeys and deaths at sea.
positives of Australia migration policy- pathway to permanent residency and citizenship
Skilled workers, students and family migrants have clear routes to permanent residency and citizenship, encouraging long-term contributions to society.
Negatives of Australia migration policy- harsh treatment of asylum seekers.
Offshore detention centres in places like Nauru and Papua New Guinea have been widely criticised for human rights abuses and poor conditions.
Long processing times leave asylum seekers in limbo for years.
Negatives of Australia migration policy- expensive and complex visa process
Australia’s visa system is one of the most expensive and complex in the world, making it difficult for skilled migrants and families to navigate.
Strict requirements make it hard for some businesses to sponsor workers.
Negatives of Australia migration policy- Impact on housing and infrastructure
High migration levels contribute to rising housing prices and increased demand for infrastructure in major cities.
Some argue migration policies need better urban planning to prevent congestion and affordability issues.
Is Australia open or closed door?
An open-door country, but with strict regulations and selective migration policies.
What is Australia’s immigration system designed to do?
Boost the economy, fill skill shortages and maintain national security.
what does Singapore’s 2024 population pyramid structure reflect?
A mature demographics profile, characterised by a narrowing base and a broadening apex (middle).
This structure indicates lower birth rates and an increasing proportion of elderly individuals.
How much does the working age population constitute to Australia’s total population?
(15-64), approx 74.1% of the total population.
How much does the elderly population constitute to Australia’s total population?
(65+), approx 14.2%
How much does the youth population constitute to Australia’s total population?
(0-14), approx 11.7%
what are the 3 key observations of Singapore’s 2024 population pyramid? What effect do these have?
Ageing population- the significant proportion off elderly individuals suggest that Singapore is experiencing an aging population, which may lead to increased demand for healthcare services, pensions and retirement support.
Declining birth rates- the narrowing base of the pyramid indicates lower birth rates, which could result in a shrinking workforce in the future and hence economic decline.
Potential economic implications- with a higher dependancy ratio, there may be increased pressure on the working-age population to support the non-working segments, potentially impacting economic growth and social services.
what may Singapore need to consider in response to demographic trends?
policies that encourage higher birth rates, support healthy ageing, and possibly adjust immigration policies to maintain social stability and protect locals jobs.
What approach does Singapore have to migration?
A pragmatic and controlled approach, balancing economic needs with social integration. The government relies on foreign workers and professionals to support its economy, but also enforces strict immigration policies to maintain social stability and protect locals jobs.
skilled pros and employment pass (EP)- migration to Singapore
Singapore attracts highly skilled professionals in finance, technology, healthcare and engineering throughout the EP system.
Complementary assessment framework (COMPASS) introduced in 2023 ensures foreign pros complement local workers rather than replace them.
low-skilled workers (work permit holders)- migration to Singapore
Low skilled migrant workers support industries such as construction, domestic work and shipbuilding.
These workers have no pathway to permanent residency or citizenship and are subject to strict employment conditions.
Tensions over foreign talent vs local jobs in Singapore
There is public concern that too many foreign workers compete with locals for jobs and housing. However policies like COMPASS aim to ensure that foreigners complement, rather than displace, Singaporean workers.
dependancy ratio ceilings (DRC) and levies- Singapore migration
How do these encourage the employment of locals?
Singapore imposes strict quotas on the number of foreign workers companies can hire.
Companies must pay higher foreign worker levies for low-skilled labor to encourage hiring locals.
Is Singapore open or closed door to migration?
Singapore it not completely closed to migration, but it maintains strict regulations to balance economic growth, social stability and local workforce protection.
How does Singapore differentiate from fully closed-door countries?
Singapore welcomes skilled professionals, investors, and essential foreign workers, but it imposes strong restrictions on low-skilled labor citizenship pathways.
What are the positives of Singapore’s migration policy?
- Social stability and workforce protection
- clear and structured migration system
- Adaptability to demographic change
maintain social stability and workforce protection- foreign worker levies and quotas ensure local workers remain prioritised for jobs. Programs like the fair consideration framework (FCF) require companies to advertise jobs to locals before hiring foreigners.
Clear and structured migration system- the immigration system is transparent and well-regulated, reducing illegal migration. Different visa categories ensure only those who contribute to the economy are admitted.
Adaptability to demographic change- Singapore’s ageing population means foreign workers help sustain the economy and healthcare sector. Selective immigration enables skilled PR applicants to help balance the declining birth rate.
