Epistemology - Reason as a source of knowledge (not in 2022 exams)

Question 1

What is Empiricism?

Answer 1

Theory of knowledge that states that all knowledge arises from experience.
All empiricists believe we are born ‘Tabula Rasa’ ( Blank Slate mind) with no Innate knowledge

Question 2

Who are the main Empiricist philosophers?

Answer 2

John Locke - founder of empiricism + David Hume

Question 3

What does David Hume state about the mind?

Answer 3

States mind has 2 things
-Ideas + Impressions
Impressions are the actual thing you see in front of you and are experiencing eg a blue jumper in front of you. they are ‘forcible and lively’
Ideas are when your imagining or remembering an idea you have previously had eg remembering what the blue jumper you saw looked like. They are ‘duller, fainter copies of Impressions’

Hume states every idea we have stems from an original sense impression.

Question 4

How does Hume state we form ideas?

Answer 4

Hume states there are 4 ways of forming Ideas;
- Compounding
- Transposing
- Augmenting
- Diminishing
H states the way our mind forms ‘new ideas’ is by combining ‘simple ideas’ to form ‘complex ideas’

Question 5

What does Hume believe about Metaphorical Ideas e.g God and Heaven?

Answer 5

Hume states anything w speculation about reality or things beyond our world such as whos behind it is nothing but ‘sophisty + Illusion’ as we cannot ever know this as no ones ever had/able to have sense impressions of heaven or God /

Question 6

Explain Hume’s ‘Blind Man’ Example

Answer 6

To prove his theory of Empiricism Hume explained that;
- A man born blind cannot imagine colours or make up new ones because e isn’t able to have the original impression of colour and so cant imagine it. Therefore we need sense Impressions to be able to form ideas such as colour. However if the man ever has his sight restored he’d have no problem imagining colours because he’d be able to have Impressions.

Question 7

State the Criticisms of Empiricism

Answer 7

• Empiricism leads to solipsism
• Mental images are not necessary for concept possession
• Kant Innate Idea
• The Missing Blue

Question 8

State the Definition of Solipsism

Answer 8

Solipsism is idea that only ones mind exists/sure to actually exist and no one else is sure to exist as its outside of your own mind. We cannot be sure of the external world.

Question 9

Explain the Criticism That Empiricism leads to Solipsism

Answer 9

By claiming that all Ideas in our mind and imagination ultimately stem from sense impressions leads to problematic conclusions because;

• If the External world may not exist it is unknowable and only our mind is guaranteed to actually exist
• It would mean I cant share my ideas with anyone else + vise versa so I would have to be completely self contained

Question 10

Explain the Criticism of Empiricism that ‘Mental Images aren’t necessary for concept possession’

Answer 10

We can still understand the concept of something and the main idea without the ability to physically imagine it in our minds. An example of this is a Chiliagon ( a 1000 sided shape) . No ones/a lot will have never seen one before or a shape over a certain no. of sides yet we can still understand what it means + concept without our minds needing to imagine it.

Question 11

Explain the criticism of Empiricism ‘The Kant Innate Idea’

Answer 11

Kant argued the mind is ‘active’ not ‘passive’ at birth and that we are born with Innate ideas which allows us to understand and experiment the world.
Kant’s states these are the “necessary constructs of experience”;
-Time+Space
-Causality
-Number
which contrasts with Hume’s idea of no Innate knowledge whatsoever.

Question 12

Explain Hume’s Criticism of his own Theory, The Missing Blue

Answer 12

Hume stated if we could line up every single shape of blue in order from darkest to lightest apart from one shape, could we possibly work out what the shade is without ever seeing it before?
Surprisingly Hume stated we probably could, however its such a small idea it “shouldn’t alter the general exam”

Question 13

Explain the ‘Copy Principle’ with Humes theory of The Missing Blue. Is it true that without specific experience+ impressions we can’t form ideas?

Answer 13

There are 2 solutions which would allow the criticism of The Missing Blue whilst maintaining a strong link between Ideas and Impressions;

• We could weaken the copy principle to say all ideas are only meaningful if they can be encountered in experience.
• Or we can keep the Copy principle(all ideas are copies of impressions) but explain how + why the Missing Shade Of Blue is an exception.
  ( They might be Different shades of blue however we can use them to work out using reason + our mind what roughly the missing blue would look like. For example we can look at the shade before and after the missing shade and form idea of what it should look like.)

Question 14

Explain Hume’s Fork

Answer 14

Hume claims that we can have 2 knowledge of 2 types of claim;

• Matters of Fact
• Relations of Ideas

Matters of fact;
are propositions about what exists / is the case
we cannot know matters of fact a priori as gain them through observation, experience, induction +reasoning. Can be denied without contradiction.

Relations of Ideas;
Analytical truths which can be discovered purely y thinking , so no need to attend to anything/ experience anything that exists anywhere else in world as they are statements which are demonstratively certain such as sciences, mathematics and geometry.

Question 15

What does A posteriori mean?

Answer 15

knowledge that can only be known to be true/false through experience/after

Question 16

What does A Priori mean?

Answer 16

knowledge that dont require (sense) experience to know

Question 17

What is an Analytical Truth?

Answer 17

Analytic truth- proposition true or false is in the meaning of the word/by definition eg bachelor is an unmarried man.

Question 18

What is a Contingent Truth?

Answer 18

A proposition could be true or false depending on the way the world is as state of affairs may not hold eg. the sun will rise tomorrow

Question 19

What is Deduction?

Answer 19

An argument whose conclusion is logically entailed by ots premises eg if premises are true the conclusion cannot be false

Question 20

What is a Deductive argument?

Answer 20

An argument, which if the premises are true then they provide conclusive evidence for the truth of the conclusion.

Question 21

Wat is ‘Innatism’?

Answer 21

Concept that we are born with Innate knowledge and Ideas and not Tabula Rasa.

Question 22

State the 2 main arguments for Innatism

Answer 22

Plato’s Slave Boy example + Leibniz Necessary Truths

Question 23

Explain Plato’s Slave Boy example

Answer 23

Socrates stated Menos Paradox ;
-‘Impossible to learn anything new, as you already know it, or you just don’t know that you know it’ so learning is unnecessary.

Plato’s solution stated that we already have Innate Knowledge as it is
asserting that “ all learning is a recollection” + Plato calls this ‘Anamnesis’ (remembering)
He demonstrates this by Socrates asking Menos slave boy a series of questions about geometry.
- The slave boy was not taught geometry, and yet is able to work out the right answer just by Socrates asking him questions. How?
- He didn’t gain the knowledge via experience so must have recovered the knowledge from within his mind thus it must be Innate.
- His argument for Innate knowledge is that we have knowledge which cant have been acquired through experience and that we need to recover our Innate knowledge.

Question 24

Explain Leibniz Necessary Truths argument for Innate knowledge ( What is Leibniz argument?)

Answer 24

Leibniz argues that our knowledge of Necessary truths aren’t derived from experience as experience only teaches us how things are not how they must be. Thus claims Necessary truths are Innate + A priori.

Leibniz states we all have ‘Infinite knowledge which is Innate and that we have to ‘chip away at it’ by “ attending carefully and methodically to what is already in our minds” in order to release the knowledge to discover that we know it.
Leibniz described the mind as a ‘Block of veined marble’ containing all knowledge within it.

The concept of Experience Triggering Innate knowledge;
Importantly by stating the knowledge is Innate doesn’t mean that sense experience is not necessary because Leibniz doesn’t claim we don’t need experience as we need it in order to release the knowledge as it triggers + activates the mind.
So we need sufficient experience to release the knowledge.

Question 25

State Locke’s 5 Criticisms of Leibniz argument of Necessary Truths + Innates

Answer 25

• Theory of Innate ideas are unnecessary
• No idea are universally held, so none are Innate
• Transpovecy of ideas
• How can we distinguish innate ideas from other ideas?
• Reliance on the supernatural

Question 26

Explain Locke’s argument that ‘ Theory of Innate is unnecessary’ against Leibniz Innate ideas

Answer 26

• Locke claims it is easier to assume that we learn these kinds of knowledge through experience and not innately. The fact that we can/have the ability to learn everything without Innate knowledge existing provides base that innate just isn’t necessary so why would we have it? Ockham’s razor -the simplest explanation is usually the right one.
  Locke could use Blind man example to explain why without experience you cant simply learn things purely innately.

Question 27

Explain Locke’s argument against Leibniz that ‘No ideas are universally held, so none are innate’

Answer 27

Firstly just because an idea can be universally held does not mean that it is Innate.
Locke then states that if there’s innate knowledge then it is universal
Children+Idiots do not know theorems of geometry or that ‘it is impossible to be and not to be’ they don’t know these claims nor understand them. Also no ideas in the world are universal or the same within each persons mind otherwise we would all have same ideas + conclusions. Eg someone can be taught something and still not understand it despite having the necessary experience to trigger the release of the knowledge therefore it is not just within a persons mind.
Therefore there is no innate knowledge.

Question 28

Explain Locke argument against Leibniz around ‘Transpovency of ideas’

Answer 28

• Locke claims for an idea to be a part of the mind, the person must know or be conscious of it “No proposition can be said to be in the mind which it has never known or been conscious of “
  Therefore, innate knowledge would have to be knowledge that every human being is or has been conscious of.

so;
The mind is transparent and we can see or have perceived all ideas it contains. If we held any innate ideas we have to be able to perceive them and any ideas we have, we must have thought of it or have even conscious of it at at least one point or another. So we can have innate knowledge the way Leibniz claims.

Question 29

Explain Locke’s argument against Leibniz ‘ How can we distinguish between innate ideas and other ideas?’

Answer 29

Locke claims Innatism is far too broad as how can we tell which ideas are defiantly innate vs which ones we gain through experience or a combination of both?
It is not clear+problamatic as there seems to be no apparent differences between ‘ learning ‘ something or ‘recalling’ something.

Question 30

Explain Locke’s argument against Leibniz the ‘Reliance on the supernatural’

Answer 30

Innatism claims that some Innate and A Priori ides are placed in our minds by God.

• However Locke has already disapproved ‘Universalised ideas’( as no ideas are universal) but God created each Human being, so if they were placed in minds by God, they would be universal so aren’t placed by God.
• We can learn these ideas/knowledge through experience and so involvement of God is completely unnecessary with Empiricism.

Question 31

What is Leibniz response to Locke’s arguments/criticisms against Innatism?

Answer 31

Leibniz states that Locke hasn’t understood which knowledge can be innate + so it misleads him and All of Locke’s definitions of Innate are not quite right.
- Innate knowledge exists as a disposition + needs to be uncovered.

• Would reject Locke’s claim that no knowledge is universal “ it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be” and that everyone knows this without attending to it. Our memory stores knowledge we are unconscious of and it is possible.
• Leibniz gives a number of examples of concepts that aren’t derived from experience + so are innate such as his ‘Intellectual ideas”
• He counters Locke’s ‘Transpovency of Ideas’ by claiming we can know things without being conscious of it, so Locke’s wrong to say ideas/knowledge can only be in the mind if we are conscious of it.
• Would claim Leibniz law is something we actually do know

Question 32

What are Intellectual Ideas + what does Leibniz claim about Intellectual Ideas?

Answer 32

Leibniz states we have a ‘Division of concepts’ which either originate in;
-Sensation or Reflection
He calls these ‘Intellectual Ideas’ which are concepts we already hold within us, to reflect is to simply see what is already within us and he claims it cat be denied that there’s a great deal within us that is innate.

Question 33

What is Platos world of Forms?

Answer 33

Plato theory of Forms asserts that physical realm is is only a shadow, or image of the true reality of the world of forms. The forms are abstract, perfect, unchangeable concepts or ideals that transcend time and space.
Forms present both the cause of everything that exists, and the sole objects of knowledge.
Eg a chair - in our world we see a particular chair and it would share some of the ‘forms’ of a chair

Question 34

What does Platos slave boy example show about knowledge?

Answer 34

• We have complete innate knowledge that are engraved within our minds , when you learn you think your learning but in reality your remembering.
• All ‘learning’ is a recollection and a form of remembering ‘ Anamnesis’ .
• Innate knowledge ‘its impossible to learn anything new because either you know it, or you just aren’t aware that you know it’ and need to uncover that knowledge
• Knowledge can be acquire din others ways not purely through experience and we have Innate knowledge which cannot be acquired through sense experience.
  Proving the mind is not passive and Tabula Rasa at birth because knowledge is engraved within us we just have to remember it ( as shown by slave boy being bale to work out geometry just by having questions asked.)