Epistemology

Question 1

What are research approaches in social sciences?

Answer 1

Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology

Question 2

What is Ontology?

Answer 2

the nature of reality, Ontology deals with the nature of existence and reality.

Question 3

Perspectives of ontology

Answer 3

Nominalism, Realism

Question 4

What is Nominalism?

Answer 4

Believing reality is shaped by human perception and is socially constructed, meaning there is no objective reality independent of our experiences.

Question 5

What is Realism?

Answer 5

Holding that an objective reality exists independently of human perception, and universal truths can be discovered

Question 6

What is Epistemology?

Answer 6

How Do We Know?- Epistemology explores how knowledge is acquired and justified.

Question 7

Approaches of Epistemology.

Answer 7

Relativism, Empiricism, Rationalism, Critical Realism

Question 8

what is relativism

Answer 8

1. Relativism (associated with postmodernism and antipositivism): Knowledge is subjective, culture-bound, and influenced by human interpretation. There is no absolute truth, and understanding comes from interpreting experiences and meanings

Question 9

What is Empiricism?

Answer 9

Knowledge is gained through sensory experience and observation, emphasizing evidence and testing

Question 10

What is Rationalism?

Answer 10

Knowledge comes from reasoning and innate ideas, focusing on deduction and intuition

Question 11

What is Critical Realism?

Answer 11

While objective reality exists, it is too complex to fully understand. This view combines empirical observation with acknowledgment of subjective factors.

Question 12

What is methodology?

Answer 12

Methodology refers to the strategies and principles guiding research methods.

Question 13

What are methodology approaches?

Answer 13

Positivism, Postpositivism, Interpretivism

Question 14

What is positivism?

Answer 14

o Seeks objective, value-neutral knowledge.
o Focuses on quantitative methods like surveys and statistical analysis.
o Emphasizes hypothesis testing and verification.

Question 14

What is postpositivism?

Answer 14

o Recognizes the complexity of reality and allows for multiple perspectives.
o Advocates for triangulation (using multiple methods to study the same phenomenon) and falsification of hypotheses.
o Employs both qualitative and quantitative methods

Question 15

What is interpretivism?

Answer 15

o Focuses on understanding subjective experiences and meanings.
o Uses qualitative methods such as case studies, interviews, and ethnography.
o Emphasizes interpretation and context.

Question 17

What is postmodernism?

Answer 17

Postmodernism, aligned with antipositivism, challenges the idea of a singular, objective reality. Instead, it asserts that reality is subjective, constructed through cultural, historical, and social contexts. This view embraces relativism, where reality varies depending on individual or societal perspectives.
Knowledge, according to postmodernism, is not universal or objective but contingent and shaped by power dynamics, language, and culture. It critiques the pursuit of absolute truths and emphasizes the importance of understanding multiple, conflicting perspectives.
Postmodernist research relies heavily on qualitative methods, focusing on hermeneutics (interpretation) and phenomenology (exploration of lived experiences). Case studies, narratives, and ethnography are preferred to highlight contextual nuances and uncover marginalized voices.

Question 18

key thinkers of Post modernism?

Answer 18

Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Jean François Lyotard

Question 19

what is rationalism?

Answer 19

Rationalism assumes that reality exists independently of human perception and can be understood through reason and innate ideas.
Knowledge is acquired through reasoning, intuition, and deduction rather than sensory experience. Rationalists argue that certain truths, such as mathematical principles, are self-evident and do not require empirical validation.
Rationalist research employs deductive reasoning, starting with general principles or axioms and deriving specific conclusions. Speculation and logical analysis are key tools.

Question 20

Key thinkers of rationalism

Answer 20

Plato, Rene Descartes, * Baruch Spinoza

Question 21

What is Empiricism?

Answer 21

Empiricism holds that reality is understood through sensory experience. It emphasizes the importance of observable phenomena and rejects innate ideas or purely abstract reasoning.
Knowledge is gained a posteriori (after experience) through observation and experimentation. Empiricism relies on evidence and systematic inquiry to establish truths. Empiricist research focuses on inductive reasoning, where specific observations lead to general conclusions. This approach underpins experimental designs, surveys, and other methods of data collection and analysis

Question 22

Key thinkers of Empiricism.

Answer 22

John Locke, David Hume, Francis Bacon

Question 24

What is Positivism?

Answer 24

Positivism asserts that an objective, external reality exists independently of human perception. Universal laws govern this reality, which can be discovered through systematic observation.
Knowledge is gained through induction, where empirical evidence leads to generalizable conclusions. Positivism emphasizes objectivity, value neutrality, and the separation of facts from values.
Research under positivism is nomothetic, focusing on measurable phenomena and testable hypotheses. Quantitative methods, statistical analysis, and experimental designs are central

Question 25

Key thinkers of positivism

Answer 25

Auguste Comte, Rudolf Carnap, Herbert Spencer

Question 26

What is postpositivism

Answer 26

Postpositivism acknowledges that while an objective reality exists, it is too complex to be fully understood. Researchers and their biases influence the process of inquiry, making perfect objectivity unattainable.
Knowledge is provisional and subject to revision. Postpositivism emphasizes empirical falsification, where hypotheses are tested and refuted rather than confirmed, echoing Karl Popper’s “conjectures and refutations.”
Postpositivism employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, often using triangulation to address the limitations of individual approaches. This perspective values a blend of empirical testing and interpretive insights.

Question 27

Key thinkers of postpositivism

Answer 27

Karl Popper, John Dewey, Nicholas Rescher

Question 28

What is Theory?

Answer 28

In its essence, a theory is a coherent narrative that seeks to describe, explain, and often predict phenomena in the world.

Question 29

What are metaphors?

Answer 29

Metaphors are central to theory-building as they bridge the gap between the familiar and the unfamiliar. For example, metaphors like “red tape” in public administration evoke images of bureaucratic inefficiency, shaping both scholarly discourse and public perception. Metaphors not only enrich theoretical narratives but also help create new conceptual categories. Over time, these categories become integrated into everyday language and thought, expanding the scope of inquiry.

Question 30

What are building blocks of theory?

Answer 30

Theory-building involves three key components:
1. Empirical Facts: Observable phenomena that serve as the foundation for hypotheses.
2. Logical Coherence: A consistent framework that connects and explains facts.
3. Metaphors and Narratives: Conceptual tools that enrich understanding and inspire new perspectives.

Question 31

What are challenges in theory building?

Answer 31

Despite its strengths, theory faces several challenges:
1. Measurement Validity: In social sciences, constructs like “intelligence” or “bureaucracy” are often debated due to their subjective and value-laden nature.
2. Resistance to Change: Theories that challenge widely held beliefs, such as the theory of evolution, often face significant opposition.
3. Complexity and Uncertainty: Social phenomena are influenced by multiple, interdependent factors, making it difficult to isolate and test variables.