epistemology

Question 1

define epistemology

Answer 1

the study of knowledge

Question 2

what are two reasons that epistemology matters?

Answer 2

1. humans may think they have knowledge, but most of it are just beliefs
2. if we are studying knowledge, we are studying the truth. what is the truth?

Question 3

define knowledge

Answer 3

a true and justified (w/ evidence) belief

Question 4

define belief

Answer 4

a statement that someone thinks is true

Question 5

define a statement/claim

Answer 5

a sentence that is either true or false

Question 6

define truth

Answer 6

a statement is truthful IF it corresponds to reality

Question 7

define evidence

Answer 7

any information that indicates a statement is true

Question 8

define proof

Answer 8

lots of evidence (pile of e’s)

Question 9

why is the study of knowledge so important?

Answer 9

because we humans are never (rarely) 100% certain

Question 10

what are the four standards of evidence?

Answer 10

1. 25%
2. above 50% (preponderance of the evidence)
3. 75% (clear & convincing evidence)
4. 100% (absolute certainty)

Question 11

what is the standard of evidence in a civil court?

Answer 11

above 50% = preponderance of the evidence

Question 12

what is the standard of evidence in a criminal court?

Answer 12

90% = beyond a reasonable doubt

Question 13

how often do courts reach “absolute certainty”?

Answer 13

never

Question 14

who is the father of modern philosophy? we are studying one of his texts, what is it called?

Answer 14

Descartes, Meditations

Question 15

What does Descartes’ 1st Meditation argue?

Answer 15

We do not know anything for certain. He then proposes a method of making what one believes to be certain uncertain.

Question 16

what is Descartes’ Method of Doubt?

Answer 16

A way of searching for certainty by doubting and questioning every reality. Asking oneself: “Is there ANY way I could be mistaken?”

Question 17

what are Descartes’ Two Skeptical Hypotheses concerning his method of doubt?

Answer 17

1. You may be dreaming
2. You may be controlled to believe something false by an evil demon

Question 18

What does Descartes’ 2nd Meditation argue?

Answer 18

There is only one statement that he has found to be for sure true.
“I think, therefore I am.”

Question 19

What is skepticism according to Descartes in the 1st Meditation?

Answer 19

the view that nobody is absolutely certain about anything

Question 20

According to the four standards of evidence…
Are all opinions equal?

Answer 20

no, as some opinions have more evidence. thus, some opinions are more truthful.

Question 21

According to the four standards of evidence…
Is Evolutionary Theory just a theory?

Answer 21

no, because some theories have more evidence than others. Evolutionary Theory is much closer to truth.

Question 22

Who said:
“[a human] is capable of rectifying his mistakes, by discussion and
experience. Not by experience alone. There must be discussion, to
show how experience is to be interpreted.”
-Explain “experience” in this context.
-Explain “interpretation” in this context.

Answer 22

1. John Stewart Mills
2. experience refers to observations
3. interpretation refers to theories

Question 23

what is the under -determination of theory?

Answer 23

combination of rationalism & empiricism

there are always many possible theories to explain the same observation

Question 24

in regards to the under-determination theory…
empiricists emphasize:
rationalists emphasize:

Answer 24

1. empiricists emphasize experience and thus observations
2. rationalists emphasize interpretation and thus theories

Question 25

how do humans get knowledge?

Answer 25

1. empiricists: the theory that the primary source of knowledge is sensory experience
2. rationalists: the theory that the primary source of knowledge is reason/intellect

Question 26

explain the example of “other animals” regarding truth

Answer 26

sugar tastes different to animals and there is no reason to think that humans are right about how sugar tastes

Question 27

what are the 3 aspects of the “Pain Analogy?” what is this analogy arguing?

Answer 27

1. object outside of mind-> nerve-> pain
2. tastes/sounds are like pain in that they are all experiences that exist only inside the mind after a nerve is stimulated

Question 28

what are the two views in regards to hearing a sound when a tree falls in a forest?

Answer 28

1. if you define sound as (airwaves) then a sound is made
2. if you define sound as (auditory experiences) no sound is made

Question 29

what are “ad hoc modifications?”

Answer 29

additions to a theory to protect it from being refuted/disproven

Question 30

what is Okham Razor?

Answer 30

principle that it is not rationally legitimate to add unnecessary entities to a theory