epistemology Flashcards
define epistemology
the study of knowledge
what are two reasons that epistemology matters?
- humans may think they have knowledge, but most of it are just beliefs
- if we are studying knowledge, we are studying the truth. what is the truth?
define knowledge
a true and justified (w/ evidence) belief
define belief
a statement that someone thinks is true
define a statement/claim
a sentence that is either true or false
define truth
a statement is truthful IF it corresponds to reality
define evidence
any information that indicates a statement is true
define proof
lots of evidence (pile of e’s)
why is the study of knowledge so important?
because we humans are never (rarely) 100% certain
what are the four standards of evidence?
- 25%
- above 50% (preponderance of the evidence)
- 75% (clear & convincing evidence)
- 100% (absolute certainty)
what is the standard of evidence in a civil court?
above 50% = preponderance of the evidence
what is the standard of evidence in a criminal court?
90% = beyond a reasonable doubt
how often do courts reach “absolute certainty”?
never
who is the father of modern philosophy? we are studying one of his texts, what is it called?
Descartes, Meditations
What does Descartes’ 1st Meditation argue?
We do not know anything for certain. He then proposes a method of making what one believes to be certain uncertain.
what is Descartes’ Method of Doubt?
A way of searching for certainty by doubting and questioning every reality. Asking oneself: “Is there ANY way I could be mistaken?”
what are Descartes’ Two Skeptical Hypotheses concerning his method of doubt?
- You may be dreaming
- You may be controlled to believe something false by an evil demon
What does Descartes’ 2nd Meditation argue?
There is only one statement that he has found to be for sure true.
“I think, therefore I am.”
What is skepticism according to Descartes in the 1st Meditation?
the view that nobody is absolutely certain about anything
According to the four standards of evidence…
Are all opinions equal?
no, as some opinions have more evidence. thus, some opinions are more truthful.
According to the four standards of evidence…
Is Evolutionary Theory just a theory?
no, because some theories have more evidence than others. Evolutionary Theory is much closer to truth.
Who said:
“[a human] is capable of rectifying his mistakes, by discussion and
experience. Not by experience alone. There must be discussion, to
show how experience is to be interpreted.”
-Explain “experience” in this context.
-Explain “interpretation” in this context.
- John Stewart Mills
- experience refers to observations
- interpretation refers to theories
what is the under -determination of theory?
combination of rationalism & empiricism
there are always many possible theories to explain the same observation
in regards to the under-determination theory…
empiricists emphasize:
rationalists emphasize:
- empiricists emphasize experience and thus observations
- rationalists emphasize interpretation and thus theories
how do humans get knowledge?
- empiricists: the theory that the primary source of knowledge is sensory experience
- rationalists: the theory that the primary source of knowledge is reason/intellect
explain the example of “other animals” regarding truth
sugar tastes different to animals and there is no reason to think that humans are right about how sugar tastes
what are the 3 aspects of the “Pain Analogy?” what is this analogy arguing?
- object outside of mind-> nerve-> pain
- tastes/sounds are like pain in that they are all experiences that exist only inside the mind after a nerve is stimulated
what are the two views in regards to hearing a sound when a tree falls in a forest?
- if you define sound as (airwaves) then a sound is made
- if you define sound as (auditory experiences) no sound is made
what are “ad hoc modifications?”
additions to a theory to protect it from being refuted/disproven
what is Okham Razor?
principle that it is not rationally legitimate to add unnecessary entities to a theory
