Epistemology

Question 1

What is realism

Answer 1

The view that something exists mind- independently

Question 2

What is direct realism

Answer 2

The immediate objects of perception are mind-independent objects and their properties

Question 3

What is Indirect realism

Answer 3

The immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent objects (sense-data) that are caused by and represent mind-independent objects.

Question 4

Arguments for DR

Answer 4

• simple, most people accept simple concepts
• common sense, the simpler the more likely it is to be true

Question 5

What are the arguments against DR and what are their responses

Answer 5

• Illusions - illusions occur due to science (pencil appearing bent in water)
• Perceptual variation - Scientists can predict other people’s perceptions and experiences
• Hallucinations - Hallucinations are the perceptions of two completely different mental states
  -Time lag argument - Occurs so minimally that it is not worth observing

Question 6

Why is Illusions a problem for DR

Answer 6

If the objects of perception are what they seem to be then a pencil looking bent in water would mean the pencil is actually bent which is not the case

Question 7

Why is perceptual variation a problem for DR

Answer 7

If several people are standing at a table then we wouldn’t see the same object due to the light hitting at different angles.
Russel argues - what I see changes, according to DR the object i see isn’t supposed to change therefore what i see isnt the objects

Question 8

Why is Hallucinations a problem for DR

Answer 8

If the world is exactly how we perceive it to be then hallucinations must also exist in reality

Question 9

Why is time lag a problem for DR

Answer 9

The time difference between an events occurrence and our experience is different (takes us 8 minutes to see sunlight) so if the sun ceased to exist we would still see it for 8 minutes

Question 10

What are the issues with Indirect realism

Answer 10

-sense data
-the distinction between primary and secondary qualities
-scepticism

Question 11

What is the issue with sense data in IDR

Answer 11

Berkley argues - how can our sense of data which are variable resemble or look like a physical object which is has a fixed and constant shape
how would we distinguish what is the true copy of the object.

Question 12

What is the issue with primary and secondary qualities in IDR

Answer 12

Berkley argues that primary and secondary qualities are actually inseparable
- primary qualities such as speed, shape and size cannot make up an object without secondary qualities such as colour, sound and texture
- without secondary qualities, we would have a random shape of mass which we would not like to call an object if we cannot see the object therefore secondary qualities are just as essential as primary qualities.

Question 13

What is idealism

Answer 13

The immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent objects these objects don’t represent reality, they are reality. There are no mind-independent objects.

Question 14

What are the arguments for Idealism

Answer 14

• It doesn’t make sense to think of a material thing or substance separate from primary and secondary qualities, these qualities are what ultimately make up the substance
• If these qualities are mind-dependent then by extension what they make up is also mind-dependnet too

Question 15

What are the arguments for Idealism

Answer 15

• It doesn’t make sense to think of a material thing or substance separate from primary and secondary qualities, these qualities are what ultimately make up the substance
• If these qualities are mind-dependent then by extension what they make up is also mind-dependent too
• non of our senses support the existence of an external world, they only support the existence of our perception/ sense data (ideas)
  -The scepticism problem doesn’t exist as we can’t access the external world so why assume there is one?

Question 16

What are the criticisms of idealism

Answer 16

• continuity and regularity, an apple left in a drawer will still rot therefore they still exist even if it is not being perceived by anyone which goes against idealism as reality seems to behave in a regular continual way
• Illusions and Hallucinations, there is no mind independent objects behind my perceptions so hallucinations must be the same as reality
  -solopsism, the view that all we can know to exist is our minds, philosophers do not like this as it leads to a trap and cause problems

Question 17

What is Berkleys theory of how we gain ideas

Answer 17

• God is the ultimate perceiver
• God keeps everyone and everything continual
• Sense data is produced in God’s mind and he copies it into humans in a predictable and regular manner

God exists because:
- they cant be within me
-They cant be an external matter
-My perceptions retain continuity
- Must be from another minds

problems:
- God must then experience pain, anger suffering to copy those into us therefore he wont be all loving, all powerfull, etc

Question 18

What is acquaintance knowledge?

Answer 18

The sense of knowing a person place sensation or feeling e.g. Paris

Question 19

What is ability knowledge?

Answer 19

The knowledge of how to do something such as riding a bike

Question 20

What is propositional knowledge?

Answer 20

knowledge that someone claims, it can either be true or false e.g. eagles are a bird

Question 21

What is a real definition?

Answer 21

A real definition is one where something is a real definition or esence of something e.g. water is H2O

Question 21

What is a real definition?

Answer 21

A real definition is one where something is a real definition or esence of something e.g. water is H2O

Question 22

What is a subjective definition?

Answer 22

A subjective definition is where something is defined by personal experience e.g. a weed is a unliked plant therefore any plant can be a weed depending on the person experiencing it.

Question 23

What is a necessary condition?

Answer 23

A condition which has to be true for something else to follow but isnt enough on its own

Question 24

What is a suficient condition?

Answer 24

A condition which is good enough on its own for something else to follow

Question 25

What is the tripartide view of knowledge and why is each part necessary for knowledge

Answer 25

Knowledge is a:
-Justified
-True
-Beliefe

justification is necessary as it provides some reason to believe the knowledge is true it is a reason as to why we hold knowledge valuable

Truth is necessary as knowledge must match up with the world for it to be seen to be knowledge

Belief is necessary as knowledge is just a belief with added conditions such as truth, beliefs on their own can be very wrong as it doesnt require truth.

Question 26

What is Gettier’s examples of the tripartide view of knowledge being false

Answer 26

Example 1:
- Smith and Jones both go for a job interview
- Smith has a goof reason to believe Jones will get the job therefore his belief is justified
-Smith has god reason to believe that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket as he has counted them
-Smith forms the statement “the man who will get the job has 10 coins in his pocket”
-In the end Smith gets the job however unknown to him he also happened to have 10 coins in his pocket

Question 27

What is Gettier’s examples of the tripartide view of knowledge being false

Answer 27

Example 1:
- Smith and Jones both go for a job interview
- Smith has a goof reason to believe Jones will get the job therefore his belief is justified
-Smith has god reason to believe that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket as he has counted them
-Smith forms the statement “the man who will get the job has 10 coins in his pocket”
-In the end Smith gets the job however unknown to him he also happened to have 10 coins in his pocket
- Therefore the statement has a justified true belief however we wouldnt want to class it as knowledge due to the element of luck

Example 2:
- Smith has good reason to believe Jones owns a Ford
- Smith has no idea where Brown is.
- Smith comes up with the statement “either Jones owns a ford or Brown is in Barcelona”
- Jones does not infact own a Ford
- Brown happens to be in Barcelona
-Therefore Browns statement is justified, true and has a belief but we wouldn’t want to say its knowledge

Question 28

What is infallibility in response to Gettier’s examples

Answer 28

Descartes states that to have knowledge you must have a good justification.
- good justification requires absolute certainty
- You cannot possibly doubt the thing in question
-Gettier’s examples are not known with absolute certainty

Positives of infalibalism:
- Deals with the Gettier examples without adding or removing anything from the tripartide view of knowledge

Negatives of infalibalism:
- rules out most things we think of as knowledge in the world as most knowledge can be doubted
- Leaving only logical truths and facts about our mind to be true

Question 29

What is no false lemmas in response to Gettiers examples

Answer 29

a false lemmer is a statement based on a false premise which supports the conclusion
- Based on a false claim so we cannot call it knowledge
- The false lemmer in the Gettier examples are:
> Jones will get the job
> Brown is in Barcelona

Positives of no false lemmers:
-Deals with the the Gettier examples
-Simply adds a 4th condition
-Simple to understand

Negatives of no false lemmers:
- Causes issues with things we would like to say we knew
- Struggles with some Gettier style examples such as fake barn example

Question 30

What is reliabalism in response to Gettier’s examples

Answer 30

Reliabalism gets rid of justification in the tripartide view of knowledge
- knowledge is now known as a true belief through a reliable process
-A reliable process is one which produces a high percentage of true beliefs
- Examples of reliable processes are: logic and factual source

Positives of reliabalism:
- Allows animals and small children to hold knowledge as they have a true belief due to a reliable process

Negatives of reliabalism:
-Doesnt deal with the Gettier examples as Smith is following a reliable process however we can say that they have false premises as Jones doesnt own a ford and Jones gets the job when he doesnt
- What counts as a reliable process isnt clear

Question 31

What is virtue epistomology in the view on knowledge

Answer 31

• A 4th view of knowledge is virtue epistomology
  -The idea of intellectual virtue (the use of reliable skills, abilities or process to identify the truth)
  -Replaces the justification condition
  -focuses on the answer rather than the process
  -We only have knowledge when we have gained the truth by using a reliable process = intellectual virtue

Question 32

What does it mean for something to be Necessary ?

Answer 32

Something that has to be the case e.g. 2+2=4

Question 33

What does it mean for something to be contingent?

Answer 33

Something that could be otherwise (not always the case) e.g. there is a table infront of me

Question 34

What is apriori?

Answer 34

Doesnt require experience to gain knowledge e.g. bachelors are unmarried men

Question 35

What is aposteriori?

Answer 35

Information which requires experience to gain knowledge e.g. it is sunny today

Question 36

What is analytic?

Answer 36

True or false based on the meanings of the words

Question 37

What is synthetic?

Answer 37

Not analytic, true or false based on the way the world is

Question 38

What is empiricism?

Answer 38

The view that all synthetic knowledge is a posteriori (knowledge comes from experience) and that our minds are a blank slate at birth which we gain ideas through expereince

Question 39

What is rationalism?

Answer 39

The view that we can gain synthetic knowledge through the use of reason (a priori) by thinking carefully about what we already know we can discover other truths about reality

Question 40

What is innatism?

Answer 40

The view that we can have a priori synthetic knowledge but is within us since birth and we dont require experience to know it

Question 41

What is Platos meno (slave boy) argument in favour of innatism and its criticisms?

Answer 41

Plato argues that all we need to access innate knowledge is prompts through experience.
-a slave boy who who does not know any geometry is able to solve a complicated geometrical truth with help
-since the slave boy manages to work out the geometric problem plato argues that the knowledge must already be inside him and he was just remembering it

criticisms:
- The slave boy was given leading that nudge him to the answer which would not be innate

Question 42

What is Leibnitz idea in favour of innatism and its criticisms

Answer 42

1) our experiences can always be different due to genetics
2) there are still certain things we understand that are necessary
3) these certain things is the innate knowledge within us

criticisms:
- Mill argues that all mathematical truths are due to experiencing them e.g. i know 2+2=4 as i have experienced it

Question 43

What is Leibnitz and Locke arguments for and against innatism?

Answer 43

Locke: there are many things we experience which people disagree on such as music, taste of food etc. therefore no knowledge is universal, there may be people with it but they may not be able to understand how to use it

Leibnitz: innate knowledge doesnt have to be universal

Locke: The mind must be transparent, surely all knowledge must stem from one experience to another

Leibnitz: There can be ideas in the mind we are not aware of e.g. song lyrics, images, peoples faces therefore it shouldnt be hard to believe that we have unlocked knowledge

Locke: Why assume that we have to remember information when we can just learn it

Leibniz: innate knowledge is necessary and we never experience anything necessary in life so it must be innate

Question 44

what are sensations and reflection in empiricism?

Answer 44

Sensation = experience of objects outside the mind
Reflection = the experiences of internal operations of minds e.g. thinking

Question 45

What is Humes copy principle in favour of empiricism and its criticism?

Answer 45

impressions are the immediate we have of something
ideas are the things we copy from impressions

lots of impressions make up an idea
simple impressions make up simple ideas
complex impressions make up complex ideas

impressions are necessary for ideas as a blind person cannot form what a colour may look like
impressions are also sufficient for ideas as we can trace ideas back to impressions

criticism:
- some concepts such as beauty and love require something else in addition to sense impressions therefore sense impressions are not always sufficient

Question 46

What is Hume’s missing shade of blue argument for empiricism

Answer 46

• imagine a row of shades of blue with one missing shade
• by using our impressions of the other blue shades around the missing shade we can imagine the missing shade
• this is an issue as we havent experienced that shade of blue but can imagine it
• Humes says that the example is so singular that we shouldnt alter our general idea of empiricism

Question 47

What is deduction and intuition in rationalism?

Answer 47

Deduction = a type of reasoning that claims if somethings are true then other things must be true.

Intuition = a gut instinct or feeling referring to rational intuition

Question 48

What is Descartes 3 waves of doubt

Answer 48

Senses - illusions and hallucinations
Existence of the external world - dreams
Truth of math - evil demon giving a false experience

Question 49

What is Descartes cogito urgo sum argument

Answer 49

cogito urgo sum = i think therefore i am
- knowledge must be undoubtable
- i can doubt my experiences due to dreams
- i know that i am doubting therefore there must exist an “i” which doubts
- therefore i know through thinking alone that i exist as a thinking thing

Question 50

What is Lockes distinction of primary and secondary qualities in IDR

Answer 50

Primary qualities are essential to an object e.g. shape, mass, size
Secondary qualities add to our experience but are not essential to an object e.g. colour, texture, sound