Epistemology Flashcards
What is realism
The view that something exists mind- independently
What is direct realism
The immediate objects of perception are mind-independent objects and their properties
What is Indirect realism
The immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent objects (sense-data) that are caused by and represent mind-independent objects.
Arguments for DR
- simple, most people accept simple concepts
- common sense, the simpler the more likely it is to be true
What are the arguments against DR and what are their responses
- Illusions - illusions occur due to science (pencil appearing bent in water)
- Perceptual variation - Scientists can predict other people’s perceptions and experiences
- Hallucinations - Hallucinations are the perceptions of two completely different mental states
-Time lag argument - Occurs so minimally that it is not worth observing
Why is Illusions a problem for DR
If the objects of perception are what they seem to be then a pencil looking bent in water would mean the pencil is actually bent which is not the case
Why is perceptual variation a problem for DR
If several people are standing at a table then we wouldn’t see the same object due to the light hitting at different angles.
Russel argues - what I see changes, according to DR the object i see isn’t supposed to change therefore what i see isnt the objects
Why is Hallucinations a problem for DR
If the world is exactly how we perceive it to be then hallucinations must also exist in reality
Why is time lag a problem for DR
The time difference between an events occurrence and our experience is different (takes us 8 minutes to see sunlight) so if the sun ceased to exist we would still see it for 8 minutes
What are the issues with Indirect realism
-sense data
-the distinction between primary and secondary qualities
-scepticism
What is the issue with sense data in IDR
Berkley argues - how can our sense of data which are variable resemble or look like a physical object which is has a fixed and constant shape
how would we distinguish what is the true copy of the object.
What is the issue with primary and secondary qualities in IDR
Berkley argues that primary and secondary qualities are actually inseparable
- primary qualities such as speed, shape and size cannot make up an object without secondary qualities such as colour, sound and texture
- without secondary qualities, we would have a random shape of mass which we would not like to call an object if we cannot see the object therefore secondary qualities are just as essential as primary qualities.
What is idealism
The immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent objects these objects don’t represent reality, they are reality. There are no mind-independent objects.
What are the arguments for Idealism
- It doesn’t make sense to think of a material thing or substance separate from primary and secondary qualities, these qualities are what ultimately make up the substance
- If these qualities are mind-dependent then by extension what they make up is also mind-dependnet too
What are the arguments for Idealism
- It doesn’t make sense to think of a material thing or substance separate from primary and secondary qualities, these qualities are what ultimately make up the substance
- If these qualities are mind-dependent then by extension what they make up is also mind-dependent too
- non of our senses support the existence of an external world, they only support the existence of our perception/ sense data (ideas)
-The scepticism problem doesn’t exist as we can’t access the external world so why assume there is one?
What are the criticisms of idealism
- continuity and regularity, an apple left in a drawer will still rot therefore they still exist even if it is not being perceived by anyone which goes against idealism as reality seems to behave in a regular continual way
- Illusions and Hallucinations, there is no mind independent objects behind my perceptions so hallucinations must be the same as reality
-solopsism, the view that all we can know to exist is our minds, philosophers do not like this as it leads to a trap and cause problems
What is Berkleys theory of how we gain ideas
- God is the ultimate perceiver
- God keeps everyone and everything continual
- Sense data is produced in God’s mind and he copies it into humans in a predictable and regular manner
God exists because:
- they cant be within me
-They cant be an external matter
-My perceptions retain continuity
- Must be from another minds
problems:
- God must then experience pain, anger suffering to copy those into us therefore he wont be all loving, all powerfull, etc
What is acquaintance knowledge?
The sense of knowing a person place sensation or feeling e.g. Paris
What is ability knowledge?
The knowledge of how to do something such as riding a bike
What is propositional knowledge?
knowledge that someone claims, it can either be true or false e.g. eagles are a bird
What is a real definition?
A real definition is one where something is a real definition or esence of something e.g. water is H2O
What is a real definition?
A real definition is one where something is a real definition or esence of something e.g. water is H2O
What is a subjective definition?
A subjective definition is where something is defined by personal experience e.g. a weed is a unliked plant therefore any plant can be a weed depending on the person experiencing it.
What is a necessary condition?
A condition which has to be true for something else to follow but isnt enough on its own
What is a suficient condition?
A condition which is good enough on its own for something else to follow
What is the tripartide view of knowledge and why is each part necessary for knowledge
Knowledge is a:
-Justified
-True
-Beliefe
justification is necessary as it provides some reason to believe the knowledge is true it is a reason as to why we hold knowledge valuable
Truth is necessary as knowledge must match up with the world for it to be seen to be knowledge
Belief is necessary as knowledge is just a belief with added conditions such as truth, beliefs on their own can be very wrong as it doesnt require truth.
What is Gettier’s examples of the tripartide view of knowledge being false
Example 1:
- Smith and Jones both go for a job interview
- Smith has a goof reason to believe Jones will get the job therefore his belief is justified
-Smith has god reason to believe that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket as he has counted them
-Smith forms the statement “the man who will get the job has 10 coins in his pocket”
-In the end Smith gets the job however unknown to him he also happened to have 10 coins in his pocket
What is Gettier’s examples of the tripartide view of knowledge being false
Example 1:
- Smith and Jones both go for a job interview
- Smith has a goof reason to believe Jones will get the job therefore his belief is justified
-Smith has god reason to believe that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket as he has counted them
-Smith forms the statement “the man who will get the job has 10 coins in his pocket”
-In the end Smith gets the job however unknown to him he also happened to have 10 coins in his pocket
- Therefore the statement has a justified true belief however we wouldnt want to class it as knowledge due to the element of luck
Example 2:
- Smith has good reason to believe Jones owns a Ford
- Smith has no idea where Brown is.
- Smith comes up with the statement “either Jones owns a ford or Brown is in Barcelona”
- Jones does not infact own a Ford
- Brown happens to be in Barcelona
-Therefore Browns statement is justified, true and has a belief but we wouldn’t want to say its knowledge
What is infallibility in response to Gettier’s examples
Descartes states that to have knowledge you must have a good justification.
- good justification requires absolute certainty
- You cannot possibly doubt the thing in question
-Gettier’s examples are not known with absolute certainty
Positives of infalibalism:
- Deals with the Gettier examples without adding or removing anything from the tripartide view of knowledge
Negatives of infalibalism:
- rules out most things we think of as knowledge in the world as most knowledge can be doubted
- Leaving only logical truths and facts about our mind to be true
What is no false lemmas in response to Gettiers examples
a false lemmer is a statement based on a false premise which supports the conclusion
- Based on a false claim so we cannot call it knowledge
- The false lemmer in the Gettier examples are:
> Jones will get the job
> Brown is in Barcelona
Positives of no false lemmers:
-Deals with the the Gettier examples
-Simply adds a 4th condition
-Simple to understand
Negatives of no false lemmers:
- Causes issues with things we would like to say we knew
- Struggles with some Gettier style examples such as fake barn example
What is reliabalism in response to Gettier’s examples
Reliabalism gets rid of justification in the tripartide view of knowledge
- knowledge is now known as a true belief through a reliable process
-A reliable process is one which produces a high percentage of true beliefs
- Examples of reliable processes are: logic and factual source
Positives of reliabalism:
- Allows animals and small children to hold knowledge as they have a true belief due to a reliable process
Negatives of reliabalism:
-Doesnt deal with the Gettier examples as Smith is following a reliable process however we can say that they have false premises as Jones doesnt own a ford and Jones gets the job when he doesnt
- What counts as a reliable process isnt clear
What is virtue epistomology in the view on knowledge
- A 4th view of knowledge is virtue epistomology
-The idea of intellectual virtue (the use of reliable skills, abilities or process to identify the truth)
-Replaces the justification condition
-focuses on the answer rather than the process
-We only have knowledge when we have gained the truth by using a reliable process = intellectual virtue
What does it mean for something to be Necessary ?
Something that has to be the case e.g. 2+2=4
What does it mean for something to be contingent?
Something that could be otherwise (not always the case) e.g. there is a table infront of me
What is apriori?
Doesnt require experience to gain knowledge e.g. bachelors are unmarried men
What is aposteriori?
Information which requires experience to gain knowledge e.g. it is sunny today
What is analytic?
True or false based on the meanings of the words
What is synthetic?
Not analytic, true or false based on the way the world is
What is empiricism?
The view that all synthetic knowledge is a posteriori (knowledge comes from experience) and that our minds are a blank slate at birth which we gain ideas through expereince
What is rationalism?
The view that we can gain synthetic knowledge through the use of reason (a priori) by thinking carefully about what we already know we can discover other truths about reality
What is innatism?
The view that we can have a priori synthetic knowledge but is within us since birth and we dont require experience to know it
What is Platos meno (slave boy) argument in favour of innatism and its criticisms?
Plato argues that all we need to access innate knowledge is prompts through experience.
-a slave boy who who does not know any geometry is able to solve a complicated geometrical truth with help
-since the slave boy manages to work out the geometric problem plato argues that the knowledge must already be inside him and he was just remembering it
criticisms:
- The slave boy was given leading that nudge him to the answer which would not be innate
What is Leibnitz idea in favour of innatism and its criticisms
1) our experiences can always be different due to genetics
2) there are still certain things we understand that are necessary
3) these certain things is the innate knowledge within us
criticisms:
- Mill argues that all mathematical truths are due to experiencing them e.g. i know 2+2=4 as i have experienced it
What is Leibnitz and Locke arguments for and against innatism?
Locke: there are many things we experience which people disagree on such as music, taste of food etc. therefore no knowledge is universal, there may be people with it but they may not be able to understand how to use it
Leibnitz: innate knowledge doesnt have to be universal
Locke: The mind must be transparent, surely all knowledge must stem from one experience to another
Leibnitz: There can be ideas in the mind we are not aware of e.g. song lyrics, images, peoples faces therefore it shouldnt be hard to believe that we have unlocked knowledge
Locke: Why assume that we have to remember information when we can just learn it
Leibniz: innate knowledge is necessary and we never experience anything necessary in life so it must be innate
what are sensations and reflection in empiricism?
Sensation = experience of objects outside the mind
Reflection = the experiences of internal operations of minds e.g. thinking
What is Humes copy principle in favour of empiricism and its criticism?
impressions are the immediate we have of something
ideas are the things we copy from impressions
lots of impressions make up an idea
simple impressions make up simple ideas
complex impressions make up complex ideas
impressions are necessary for ideas as a blind person cannot form what a colour may look like
impressions are also sufficient for ideas as we can trace ideas back to impressions
criticism:
- some concepts such as beauty and love require something else in addition to sense impressions therefore sense impressions are not always sufficient
What is Hume’s missing shade of blue argument for empiricism
- imagine a row of shades of blue with one missing shade
- by using our impressions of the other blue shades around the missing shade we can imagine the missing shade
- this is an issue as we havent experienced that shade of blue but can imagine it
- Humes says that the example is so singular that we shouldnt alter our general idea of empiricism
What is deduction and intuition in rationalism?
Deduction = a type of reasoning that claims if somethings are true then other things must be true.
Intuition = a gut instinct or feeling referring to rational intuition
What is Descartes 3 waves of doubt
Senses - illusions and hallucinations
Existence of the external world - dreams
Truth of math - evil demon giving a false experience
What is Descartes cogito urgo sum argument
cogito urgo sum = i think therefore i am
- knowledge must be undoubtable
- i can doubt my experiences due to dreams
- i know that i am doubting therefore there must exist an “i” which doubts
- therefore i know through thinking alone that i exist as a thinking thing
What is Lockes distinction of primary and secondary qualities in IDR
Primary qualities are essential to an object e.g. shape, mass, size
Secondary qualities add to our experience but are not essential to an object e.g. colour, texture, sound
