Epi cards

Question 1

What infections are on the rise?

Answer 1

Tuberculosis

Dengue Fever

Question 2

What infections is there a decline in?

Answer 2

Stomach cancer and lung cancer

Question 3

what is likelihood of cancer in less developed countries?

Answer 3

60%

Question 4

what are the Most common diagnosed cancers?

Answer 4

Lung
Breast
Colorectal

Question 5

What are the most causes of cancer death?

Answer 5

Lung
Liver
Stomach

Question 6

How long does it take for cancer to appear?

Answer 6

20 years

Question 7

What are the major carcinogens?

Answer 7

• Tobacco
• alcohol
• air pollution
• occupational agents

Question 8

What study can we measure prevalence from?

Answer 8

cross sectional studies.

Prevalence is a proportion.

Question 9

What are the leading causes of death

Answer 9

heart diseases, cerebro-vascular disease, respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, COPD

Question 10

what are the infectious disease that causes most of the death (90%)?

Answer 10

lower respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrhoeal diseases, tuberculosis, malaria and measles.

Question 11

what percentage and what type of cardiovascular disease leads to death?

Answer 11

• Mainly coronary heart disease and stroke.

- 29.5%

Question 12

what 3 factors related to diet and lifestyle is particularly important?

Answer 12

• Blood pressure
• tobacco smoking
• serum cholesterol levels

Question 13

What is the fold growth of access to therapy for HIV/AIDS

Answer 13

10 fold

Question 14

what does SMR take into account and what is it?

Answer 14

Used for comparing one area with a “standard population”, adjusting for age (often also sex)
Represents the ratio of the number of observed deaths (or cases of disease) (O) in a particular population to the number that would be expected (E), if that population had the same mortality or morbidity experience as a standard population, corrected for differences in age (and sex) structure.

Taking into account for the effect of age

It is a ratio.

Question 15

At the end of a trial, what calculations can be done when presenting the findings?

Answer 15

The experimental event rate (EER) = incidence in the intervention arm

Control event rate (CER) = incidence in the control arm

Relative risk = EER/CER

Relative reduction = (CER- EER)/ CER

Absolute risk reduction (ARR) = CER- EER

Number needed to treat (NNT) = 1/ARR

Question 16

What is incidence?

Answer 16

Overall incidence = new cases in cohort/total number in cohort

Question 17

What is the relative risk?

Answer 17

The relative risk is the incidence in the exposed group (non-circumcised) divided by the incidence in the non-exposed group (circumcised)

Question 18

what is attributable risk (or attributable fraction)

Answer 18

The risk difference

Attributable Risk = Incidence in the Exposed – Incidence in the Unexposed.

Question 19

How to work out odds and when do you work out odds?

Answer 19

For case-control

Odds of exposure in the disease/ odds of exposure in the disease free- free group control)

Question 20

What is the mathematical relationship between odds and probability?

Answer 20

probability / (1 – probability)

Question 21

advantages of a systematic approach

Answer 21

Transparent process because of the explicit methods in identifying and rejecting studies.
A meta-analysis, if appropriate, will increase the power of the study and enhance the precision of estimates of treatment effects, accounting for sample size, and uncertainties.
Systematic reviews may demonstrate the lack of adequate evidence and thus identify areas where further studies are needed.

Question 22

What is involved in a systematic review?

Answer 22

Stage I
Planning the review
Stage II
Identification of research 
Stage III
Reporting and dissemination

Question 23

Meta-analysis: strengths and limitations

Answer 23

More subjects can be included than any single constituent study, producing a more reliable and precise estimate of effect;
Differences (heterogeneity) between published studies can be identified and explored.
If the studies are too heterogeneous, it may be inappropriate, even misleading to statistically pool the results from separate studies.

Question 24

how can heterogenity be explored?

Answer 24

Galbraith (radial) plots.

if too much heterogeneity exists, it might not be appropriate to pool the studies.

Question 25

what are Receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC) curves used for

Answer 25

Receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC) curves are used to determine a cut-off value for a diagnostic or screening test.

Question 26

What type of test would you do for accuracy of diagnostic test?

Answer 26

Cross-sectional design

Question 27

What type of study for prognosis of disease?

Answer 27

Cohort study

Question 28

What type of study when you want to work out causes and risk factors of disease: ?

Answer 28

various non-randomised design

Question 29

study for population healthcare needs?

Answer 29

Various including ecological studies

Question 30

What to do for treatment efficacy?

Answer 30

Randomised trial

Question 31

how often does the census happen in the UK?

Answer 31

every 10 years

Question 32

which type of study is good for studying rare diseases?

Answer 32

Case-control studies

NOT rare exposure

Question 33

How to carry out a case-control study?

Answer 33

1. Select cases with disease and controls without disease
2. Obtain information on past exposures and other factors
3. compare proportions of people exposed in cases and controls

Question 34

advantages of Cohort studies?

Answer 34

Can look at multiple outcomes
Can follow through the natural course of the disease
Can calculate incidence
Good to look at rare exposures

Question 35

What is an advantage of case-control studies?

Answer 35

Can examine effects of multiple exposures.