EoY [ERQ] Cog

Question 1

Outline how to structure an ERQ

Answer 1

1. Define/explain
2. Relevant study #1
3. Relevant study #2
4. Critical points [A, B, C]
5. Considered Judgement

Question 2

List the key exam acronyms

Answer 2

Question 3

Define TEACUP

Answer 3

*used to evaluate theories
Testability: is it possible to set up an experiment to test the theory?
Empirical evidence: is there res. to support or contradict the theory?
Application: can the theory be used to explain or change behaviour?
Construct validity: are the concepts that make up the theory well-defined? Are they observable and measurable?
Unbiased: is the res. Ethnocentric (culture)? Androcentric (Gender)? Is the res. upon which the theory is based representative of a global population?
Predictability: does the theory enable us to predict trends or an individual’s behaviour?

Question 4

Define MAGEC (pronounced magic)

Answer 4

*used to evaluate research
Methodological flaws
Alternative arguments
Generalizability
Ethical considerations
Cultural Differences

Question 5

Define CARDUD

Answer 5

*Used to evaluate ethics
Consent
Anonymity
Right to Withdraw
Debrief
Undue stress or harm
Deception

Question 6

Describe the Components of Schema Theory

Answer 6

Schemas: mental representations derived from prior experience & knowledge
Scripts: patterns of behaviour that are learnt through our interaction with the environment - developed within cultural contexts & thus aren’t universal
Schema Theory: theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge and use it - based on assumption that humans are active processors of information

Question 7

Define Cognition and list the core principles

Answer 7

Cognition: The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension
Core Principles
Humans are active information processors
Mental Processes can be studied scientifically
Mental representations guide behaviour
Models can be used to understand complex processes such as memory & decision making

Question 8

List the possible subjects in order

Answer 8

1. Ethics
2. Research Models
3. Memory Models
4. Schema Theory
5. Thinking / Decision making
6. Reconstructive M
7. Biases
8. Emotion
9. Technology 1
10. Technology P
11. Technology N

Question 9

Loftus and Pickerell [1995]

Answer 9

AIM: Determine if false memories of autobiographical events can be created through the power of suggestion

PROCEDURE:
- 24 participants - mostly female
- Before the study - parents/siblings asked for 3 childhood memories of the P. and if the P. ever remembered being lost in a mall, data only used if they weren’t ever lost in a mall
- P. received a questionnaire in the mail asking to write about 4 memories & mail reply
[3 real events and 1 false (about getting lost in a mall) - if didn’t recall, simply instructed to write ‘I do not remember this’]
- P. interviewed 2x over a period of 4 weeks
- Asked to recall as much information as possible for the events - and asked to rate information on confidence from 1-10
- After 2nd experiment P. debriefed & asked if they could guess which was the false mem.

FINDINGS:
25% recalled the false memory - but also less confident in the memory

EVALUATION:
Although the study is often seen as strong evidence in the power of suggestion in creating false memories, only 25% recalled the event
Study does not tell us why some P. more susceptible to these memories than others
But does show that the creation of false mem. is possible

Question 10

Kahneman et al. [1993] [Sapiens (beginning - end)]

Answer 10

AIM: Investigate the idea that P. will judge an experiment based on the peak & end of the experience

PROCEDURE:
- P. had to hold their hand in painfully cold water - with the free hand, P. recorded the strength of the pain with their fingers
- Repeated measures - conditions: 60s, 14˚C at end, P. given a warm towel, or first 60s at the same conditions, then 30s slightly warmer water entered the tub, raising temperature by 1˚C
- Had to then chose to repeat 1 or 2

FINDINGS:
- 80% chose condition 2 - even though 1 would be better
- Clear example of Peak-end rule - based choice on how the condition ended

EVALUATION:
Not ethical

Framing Effect: people react to choices depending of presentation, when we expect success we would rather have a definite win, when defeat is expected we would rather have a uncertain loss

Question 11

Kulkofsky et al. [2011] [Kopf “bling”]

Answer 11

AIM: See if there was a difference in rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic & individualistic cultures

PROCEDURE:
- 275 adults from China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA
- Given a memory questionnaire which mirrored the questionnaire used by BROWN & KULIK 1977; given a series of nine events and asked about the circumstances where they first heard about the event - when yes, P. asked to write an account of their memory & rate it on a scale of personal importance and asked if they had a flashbulb memory of personal events
- Asked about when and how they learnt about the events recalled by P. in 5 minutes, and then about the personal importance of the event
- In native language of the participants

FINDINGS:
- Collectivistic cultures (China): personal importance & intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories
- More individualistic cultures - opposite
- Less rehearsal of the triggering event compared to P. of other cultures lowered chances of developing a FBM, so significant difference in creation of FBM if event was of national importance

Question 12

HM Milner [1966]

Answer 12

CASE STUDY:
- Example of biological evidence that STM and LTM are located in a different store in the brain
- HM had anterograde amnesia
- Could not transfer new information into LTM - but still had access to many of his memories prior to his surgery
- Fact that he could create new procedural memories shows that mem. may be more complex than the M-SMM predicts

Question 13

Warrington & Schalice [1970]

Answer 13

AIM: To demonstrate a case where LTM remained intact while STM was damaged

PROCEDURE:
- Case Study
- KF’s LTM in-tact but showed impairment of STM
- Problem recalling lists of words/numbers but was able to learn
- Clearly moved information from STM to LTM

FINDINGS:
- Although KF quickly forgot words/numbers when presented orally, he could remember them when presented visually - supports theory that there are separate STM stores
- Longitudinal - Warrington and Schallice could later find that although KF could not recall words or letters orally, he had no difficulty recalling cats meowing or telephones ringing
- R. concluded that accident had resulted in damage due to a STM store that was auditory & not visual, and also verbal rather than non-verbal
- Supports theory that STM is much more complicated that suggested by M-SMM

Question 14

Brewer & Treyens [1981]*

Answer 14

AIM: Investigate role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of memory

PROCEDURE:
- 86 university psych students
- Seated in a room made to look like an office - P. asked to wait in the professor’s office while the R. checked to make sure the previous participant had completed the experiment (did not realize experiment had already begun)
- All P. had the same vantage point
- After 35 seconds P. called into another room & asked to remember what was in the office - P. given a questionnaire asking if they expected to be asked to recall the office
- P. allocate 1 of 3 conditions
- Recall: asked to write & describe as many objects possible - location, shape & size
- After, given a verbal recognition test in which they had to rate items in a booklet for how certain they were that the object was in the room
- Drawing: P. given an outline of room & asked to draw what they could remember
- Verbal recognition: P. asked to read a list of objects and simply asked whether they were in the room/not

Question 15

Bartlett [1932]* [Bar]

Answer 15

AIM: Investigate how the memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge

PROCEDURE:
- P. told a native american legend - P. were british, thus unfamiliar with the names and concepts
- P. allocated one of two conditions
- Repeated reproduction: P. heard story and told to reproduce it after a short time & then repeat this after a period of days, weeks, months and years
- Serial reproduction: Recall story & repeat to other P.

FINDINGS:
- No significant difference between the way groups recalled story
- Three patterns of distortion -
1) became more consistent w/ P.’s own cultural expectations.
2) became shorter (after 6/7 reproductions, it was 180 words).
3) change the order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of P. - and added details/emotions

EVALUATION:
- No standardized intervals of reproducing the story
- No Significant independent variable
- Low reliability
- No standardized procedure

Question 16

Wason [1968]

Answer 16

AIM: Illustrate intuitive system one thinking → prove S1 is prone to error

PROCEDURE:
Participants shown four cards, two numbers and two colored cards & asked which card(s) must be turned over to test idea that if a card shows an even number, it is red

FINDINGS:
- Most choose 8 & red, incorrect
- Decision based on matching bias, in an abstract problem we tend to be overly influenced by wording/context of the question
- Evan & Wason (1976) found that when asked, P. could not clearly explain their choice - provides important evidence for the dual process model

Question 17

Englich & Mussweiler [2001]

Answer 17

AIM:
Experiment 1: Investigate if anchoring bias could play a significant role in determining sentences in courtrooms
Experiment 2: To examine the role of experience in decision making of trial judges

PROCEDURE:
Exp. 1: 44 german law students given a rape case, and given questionnaire; half told that the prosecutor recommended 34 months, the other half told 12 months recommended
- P. asked to indicate if sentence was too low, adequate or too high. Also asked to indicate sentence they would personally give
Exp. 2: 16 trial judges with mean 15y experience, scenario and questionnaire identical to Experiment 1

FINDINGS:
Exp. 1: P. told that recommendation was 34 months sentenced average 8 months longer in prison than P. told that 12 months was recommended
Exp. 2: Same as Experiment 1 - sentences were higher when anchor was higher
→ no difference btwn experiments, meaning experience does not influence obtained effects
- Anchoring bias has a large effect on decision making, P. hold onto initial piece of information to make subsequent judgements based on the given information
- Based personal opinions on info given, using automatic system 1 thinking

EVALUATION:
- Lab experiment - lacks ecological validity
- P. may have been emotionally affected by rape case

Question 18

Sharot et al. [2007] [Lois]

Answer 18

AIM: Determine potential role of biological factors in the FBM

PROCEDURE:
- 3 years after 9/11
- 24 P. in New York during 9/11
- Brain activity observed using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- Presented word cues: including ‘summer’ or ‘september’ to link events of their summer or 9/11 with the other word
- Brain activity recorded
- After fMRI P. rated memories for vividness, detail, confidence & arousal & asked to write personal memories

FINDINGS:
- Only ½ of participants reported having Flashbulb memories
- This ½ was also closer to World Trade Center at the time of event
- Included more specific details
- Activation of amygdala was higher when recalling memories of the terrorist attack for P. closer to the event
- P. further away had equal levels of response for events of preceding summer & attack
- Strength of amygdala activation correlated w/ FBM
- Suggests close personal experience may be critical in engaging neural mechanisms which produce vivid memories s.a. those of FBMT

EVALUATION:
- Does not explain why someone who simply saw it on TV may claim to have a FBM
- Correlational: does not establish a cause and effect relationship w/ memory attribution in the amygdala
- Post hoc ergo propter hoc

Question 19

Sparrow et al. [2011]* [peck, peck]

Answer 19

AIM: Investigate idea that we would invest less effort in committing info to mem. if we believe we can simply retrieve the info from an external memory store s.a. Google at a later date

PROCEDURE:
- P. asked to type 40 trivia facts into a computer, some facts expected to represent new knowledge - some likely to already be known
- 2x2 independent samples design - 2 IV at 2 diff. Levels
- ½ of P. told computer would save everything, others told it would be erased
- Within each of these groups, ½ of P. explicitly told to remember new info.

FINDINGS:
- Being asked to remember the info made no sig. difference in P. ability to recall facts but was significantly different if P. believed that the info was stored
- P. who believed that they would be able to retrieve the info appeared to make far less effort to remember the info

EVALUATION:
- Cannot measure ‘level of effort’

Question 20

Mueller & Oppenheimer [2014]*

Answer 20

AIM: To test the theory if using a laptop or other devices, instead of taking notes by hand, may hinder learning

PROCEDURE:
- 109 students, mainly female, given a laptop or pen and paper - instructed to take notes on four lectures, a video of a graduate student reading from a teleprompter
- Told that they would be tested in one week, half of each respected group couldn’t study, and the other group had 10 minutes before the test to study
- Test: 40 Q., both factual and conceptual

FINDINGS:
Longhand study wass best, but was very similar to the laptop no-study (25.6 vs 20.6)

EVALUATION:
- Research is inconclusive - could be coincidence
- Sample could be used to taking notes in other methods, leading to inefficient note-taking
- Lectures disconnected from the interests of undergrads
- Rather artificial: lacks ecological validity

Question 21

Rosser et al. [2007]

Answer 21

AIM: Investigate whether playing videogames results in better surgery performance in laparoscopic surgeons

PROCEDURE:
- Correlational study of 33 laproscopic surgeons
As part of their surgical training, P. participated in series of drills s.a. Lifting and moving triangular objects by putting a needle through a loop at the top of the triangle
- R. measured amount of mistakes made and completion times of drills, serving as an indicator of performance during surgery
- Playing videogames assessed in two ways;
self-report questionnaire used to assess videogame experience outside of res.
- P. asked to play 3 games for 25 minutes & score obtained in the game served as an indicator of game mastery. Games selected as they required fast reactions & precise movements

FINDINGS:
- Videogame mastery highly correlated with less time and fewer errors in performing drills
- P. who played videogames for more than three hours per week made 37% fewer errors in surgery drills and performed surgery 27% faster than their non-playing colleagues
→ when playing games, P. improved their motor skills and attention & subsequently able to transfer the skills to a new situation
- Highly specific situation, not yet known whether interacting with digital technology has any effects on a wider domain

Question 22

Sanchez [2012]

Answer 22

AIM: Investigate how transferrable the effects of playing videogames are to wider domains (such as science learning)

PROCEDURE:
- 60 university students in independent measures design experiment randomly allocated to two groups
1) Spatial training: played first-person shooter game (Halo: Combat Evolved)
2) Non-spatial training: verbal game involving combining letters to form words (Word Whomp)
- After playing allocated game P. read complex text about plate tectonics without illustrations, describing theoretical model of volcanic eruptions
- After reading, P. required to write an essay
Independant scorers read essays & assessed extent to which it demonstrated understanding of concepts of plate tectonics

FINDINGS:
- P. who played first-person shooter game gained higher scores on the essay, showing a better understanding of plate tectonics
→ Reading about model of plate tectonics without illustrations requires one to encode verbal information and translate it to spatial representations
- Although somewhat different to what is expected from a first-person shooter, the research demonstrates that skills acquired in the game are somewhat generalizable to wider domains