Environment Flashcards
Define GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the increase in the Earth’s temperature, widely believed to be due to heat trapped by greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide.
Define SHALLOW/REFORMIST ECOLOGY
Shallow or reformist ecology is a green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends, and is associated with values such as sustainability and conservation. It is supported by mainstream politicians and political parties.
Define DEEP/RADICAL ECOLOGY
Deep ecology is a green ideological perspective that gives priority to the maintaining the ecological balance of nature; it is associated with values such as bio-equality, diversity and decentralization. It is supported by environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.
Define RESOURCE PROBLEMS
Resource problems relate to the relationship between the increasing need for resources (due to population growth, and industrialisation), and their depletion.
Examples include: fossil fuels, shrinking rain forests, over fishing
Define SINK PROBLEMS
Sink problems are the problems caused by the damage done by waste products of economic activity.
Examples: air and water pollution, green house gases, global warming.
What is the IPCC?
The International Panel on Climate Change is an international panel of scientists and researchers that provide advice on climate change to the international community.
What are examples of international attempts to combat climate change?
- The International Panel on Climate Change was created in 1988
- The ‘Earth Summit’ held in Rio in 1992 was the first summit held to address the problem in a cooperative way.
- 1997 Kyoto Protocol - developed countries pledged to cut their emissions by an average of 5%.
- Paris Agreement in 2015.
Define ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of the relationship between between living organisms and their environment. It highlights the interconnectedness of nature.
Define ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are sink and resource problems that threaten the ecological balance of the Earth. They are global issues as they cross borders and cannot be solved by states acting independently.
Define the TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS
The tragedy of the commons is the disparity between rational individual behaviour, which works in self interest, and satisfying the needs of the collective. Before the introduction of enclosures, common land was often subject to overgrazing due to each herder being able to keep as many cattle as they wished. The number of cattle then often exceeded capacity allowed, bringing tragedy to all;
‘freedom in the commons brings ruin to all’ - Garrett Hardin
‘We can never do merely one thing. Any intrusion into nature has numerous effects, many of which are unpredictable.’ - Hardin
Define a FREE RIDER
A free rider is an individual or state who benefits from a good without paying for it.
What are the implications of the tragedy of the commons for global environmental policies?
- There is a lack of international effort - states are self interested and would rather benefit their own needs than those of the collective. States free ride within the international system
EXAMPLE; USA pulled out of Paris and refused to ratify the 1997 Kyoto protocol - A move towards world government - environmental legislation is weak due to international anarchy. Sovereignty is shared between 193 sovereign states and there is no overriding authority to force them to obey legislation they did not subscribe to.
These global environmental issues require global solutions.
Define SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is therefore based on the idea of cross-generational justice and the notion that future generations are entitled to living standards at least as prosperous as those enjoyed by present. Brundtland report (1987)
It suggests that we can benefit from both environmental and economic wellbeing.
What is the reformist approach to tackling environmental problems?
Promotion of sustainable development and adaption and mitigation techniques. They argue that environmental degradation can be tackled without major intervention at national or global levels, and economic growth is good, as long as it is controlled.
‘Getting richer, slower’.
What is the radical approach to tackling environmental problems?
They entirely reject materialistic and consumerists values and call for 0 economic growth achieved through strong sustainability. they argue that change is required culturally as well as politically (e.g. changing the lifestyles of those in very developed countries) and that supranational organisations are the best way to get states to collective take action.
Why is the idea of sustainable development controversial?
- According to climate change sceptics, the idea has gone too far. It undermines state sovereignty and hinders economic growth (through slowing it down).It also places limitations on the global South that did not exists when the global North was developing, putting limits on the number of people that can be lifted out of poverty.
- According to radical ecologists, the idea has not gone far enough. It places too much emphasis on the needs of humans and masks the real problem (which is the fundamental flaws of capitalism). They campaign for 0% economic growth.
What are examples of international efforts to tackle climate change?
The Rio Earth Summit (1992), the Kyoto Protocol (1997), the Copenhagen summit (2009), the Paris Climate Agreement (2015).
Outline the features of the Kyoto Protocol
Held in Kyoto in 1997. Achieved two binding targets:
- Developed world countries signed up to an agreement to reduce emissions by an average of 5% on 1990 levels by 2012.
- Flexibility mechanisms were introduced to allow carbon trading, which became known as ‘cap and trade’.
Outline the features of the Rio Earth Summit
Held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. It was the first conference to really bring the issue of climate change to the international stage.
Two international agreements came out of it:
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity - countries to adopt national policies to protect the environment through sustainable development.
2. The UNFCCC - the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, a non-binding agreement to stabilise CO2 emissions to 1990 levels.
Also established the Commission on Sustainable Development.
Outline the features of the Copenhagen Accord
Held in Copenhagen in December 2009. Drafted by the USA, China, India, Brazil and South Africa. 163 countries participated.
From it came:
1. A ‘pledge’ to prevent 2C warming on pre-industrial levels.
2. Developed countries to submit plans for cutting emissions to be checked by the UN
3. Developing countries to submit reports on emissions to measure and verify them.
4. Developed countries should subsidise cleaner technologies in poorer countries so they can industrialise without massively adding to global pollution levels.
Outline the features of the Paris Climate Agreement
Held in Paris in December 2015. All 193 states signed up to it. Its main provisions:
- To keep global temperatures rises ‘well below 2C’ and endeavour to limit them further to 1.5C.
- To achieve carbon neutral economies
- To review each country’s contribution every 5 years, so they can increase their commitment.
- Rich countries to help poorer ones by providing ‘climate finance’, helping them to adapt to climate change and switch to renewable energy sources.
What are the strengths of the Rio summit?
- 172 states attended and 2400 NGO representatives did too
- Large numbers of journalists help to spread the Summit’s message around the world
- Acknowledged the interrelationship between global issues such as human rights, gender equality, environmental protection etc. These issues could not be addressed individually.
What are the weaknesses of the Rio summit?
- Nothing binding was agreed
- Arguably too many interests were given a voice.
- Tensions about how climate change mitigation would be paid for was evident between developed and developing countries.
What are the strengths of the Kyoto Protocol?
- First to introduce legally binding targets concerning the reduction of greenhouse gases
- Recognised ‘common but differentiated responsibilities of developing and developed states’.
- Provided a mechanism for the idea that carbon was a commodity - carbon trading and ‘cap and trade’.
What are the weaknesses of the Kyoto Protocol?
- Inadequate targets (only 5%)
- Critics of carbon trading argue that it allows states to exploit their targets and not take climate change seriously. The low prices of carbon does not incentivise businesses to ‘go green’ and it is cheaper to emit.
- Only applied to 41 developed states, and none from the South - intensified the North/South divide and allowed large developing nations, such as China, to continue emitting heavily.
- The USA did not ratify the treaty and pulled out in 2001, despite emitting 25% of all greenhouse gas emissions.
- Canada withdrew in 2011
What are the strengths of the Copenhagen Accord?
- Developing countries expressed a commitment to action for the first time
- Under Obama, the USA was setting national targets and demonstrating that their policies were shifting - they set a target of 4% cut on 1990 levels by 2020.
- 192 states attended.
- Prepared the ground for subsequent action on climate change and set up a platform for follow up annual climate summits (Cancun 2010, Durban 2011). These set out a path for ground breaking agreements at Paris.
