English & Writing

Question 1

Discuss transitions in writing paragraphs

Answer 1

Contrasting transitions are transitions used to connect contrasting ideas. Examples of contrasting transitions: yet, but, although, while, and however.

The following transitional words indicate a logical connection: because, indeed, also, and thus.

Logical transitions are used between two paragraphs to link the first paragraph idea to the second paragraph.

Question 2

Discuss the importance of verb tense consistency in writing

Answer 2

Do not change tenses without a justifiable reason when you are writing.

Inconsistent example: The child screams loudly and ran down the hall. (Screams is present tense; ran is past tense.)

Consistent example: The child screamed loudly and ran down the hall. (Both verbs are in the past tense.)

Question 3

Discuss methods to obtain coherence in writing

Answer 3

Methods to obtain coherence include:

• Repetition of a key phrase or word
• Use of personal pronouns
• Use of synonyms
• Use of parallel construction

Question 4

Discuss the topic sentence, the importance of sentence unity, and sequence in writing

Answer 4

A paragraph usually begins with the topic sentence, which presents the main idea.

Every paragraph should have UNITY. All sentences should be related to the main idea of the paragraph (topic sentence) and flow logically. The remaining sentences should provide supporting details regarding the topic sentence.

When providing instructions or telling a story, a writer should tell events or items in the order of events, or SEQUENCE. Transitional words commonly used include the following: first, second, then, next, later, last, and finally.

Paragraph sentences should be structure so that every sentence builds the paragraph up to a climax; this is called climatic order.

Question 5

Discuss dangling or displaced modifiers

Answer 5

DANGLING or MISPLACED MODIFIERS happen when related parts of a sentence are separated. Usually, modifiers should be located as close as possible to the words they modify or describe.

Example: I cooked a roast for my husband with gravy.

Improved: I cooked a roast with gravy for my husband.

Question 6

Discuss the importance of simplicity in writing

Answer 6

SIMPLICITY cannot be overstated. You should never choose a longer, more complicated, or wordier replacement if a simple one will do. When a point can be are with fewer words, choose that answer. However, never sacrifice the flow of text for simplicity. If an answer is simple, but does not make sense, then it is not correct.

Omit any words that pointlessly repeat information that is already given.

Beware of added phrases that don’t add anything of meaning, such as “to be” or “as to them”. Often these added phrases occur just before a colon, which may come before a list of items. However, the colon does not need a lengthy introduction.

Question 7

Describe the various types of paragraphs that can make up the essay body

Answer 7

PARAGRAPH: a group of sentences that tells about one main idea.
EXPLANATION: give examples, facts, and details.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST: discusses how things are similar or different.
CHRONOLOGICAL: arranged according to timing
SPATIAL: arranged according to location.
EMPHASIS: arranged in order of importance.
CAUSE AND EFFECT: arranged from effect to cause or cause to effect.
PROBLEM/SOLUTION: arrange according to issues and solutions
TOPICAL: arranged according to topics discussed.

Question 8

Discuss uses for transitional words and phrases

Answer 8

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES can be used to:

1. ADD IDEAS: again, furthermore, besides, too, also
2. COMPARE/CONTRAST: likewise, yet, however, although
3. PROVE: because, since, obviously
4. SHOW EXCEPTIONS: yet, however, occasionally
5. SHOW TIME: consequently, thus, therefore
6. EMPHASIZE: obviously, certainly, indeed
7. GIVE EXAMPLES: for example, to demonstrate, to illustrate
8. CONCLUDE: thus ,consequently, therefore

Question 9

Discuss points to keep in mind while writing an exam essay

Answer 9

1. Clearly announce your position in response to the specified topic and establish the structure of the essay.
2. Organize what you plan to write and follow it closely.
3. Be direct and to the point.
4. Provide examples and clear expectations.
5. Avoid generalizations.
6. Use transitional phrases to get from one point to another; develop a logical flow between ideas.
7. Use variety in sentence structure; follow rules of standard written English.
8. Save time for revising and editing.
9. Maintain a consistent tone throughout the essay.

Question 10

Discuss word usage

Answer 10

WORD USAGE, or DICTION, refers to the use of words with meanings and forms that are appropriate for the context and structure of a sentence. A common error in words usage occurs when a word’s meaning does not fit the context of the sentence. This will frequently occur with homonyms (words that sound alike but have different meanings).

Incorrect: Susie likes chips better then candy.
Correct: Susie likes chips better THAN candy.

Incorrect: The cat licked it’s colt.
Correct: The cat licked ITS colt.

Commonly misused words include:
than/then, it’s/its, they/their/they’re, your/you’re, except/accept, affect/effect.

Question 11

Describe pronoun-noun agreement in gender

Answer 11

A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender
- Antecedents of MASCULINE gender (male sex) are ferried to by he, him, his.
- Antecedents of FEMININE gender (female sex) are referred to by she, her, hers.
- Antecedents of NEUTER gender (no sex) are referred to by it, its.
Antecedents of COMMON gender ( sex not known) are referred to by he, him, his. It is understood that the masculine pronouns include both male and female.

• Antecedents that are names o fanimals are generally referred to by the neuter pronouns unless the writer wishes to indicate special interest in one or the other.

Question 12

Describe negation

Answer 12

NEGATION is the process that turns an affirmative statement (I am the walrus) into its opposite denial (I am not the walrus).
Nouns as well as verbs can be grammatically negated by the use of a negative adjective (There is no walrus), a negative pronoun (Nobody is the walrus), or a negative adverb (I never was the walrus). The negative particles are not and no; the negative particle is placed after the auxiliary verb in a sentence.

Question 13

Describe noun-pronoun agreement in number

Answer 13

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in NUMBER. If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun referring to it must be singular; if the antecedent is plural, the pronoun referring to its must be plural.
- Use SINGULAR pronouns to refer to the singular indefinite pronouns: each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody. Ex: EACH of the students brought HIS own lunch. (NOT: Each of the students brought THEIR own lunch.)

• Use PLURAL nouns to refer to the plural indefinite pronouns: both, few, several many. Ex: BOTH were within THEIR boundaries.
• The indefinite pronouns some, any, none, all, most may be referred to by SINGULAR or PLURAL pronouns, depending on the sense of the sentence.
• Pronouns that refer to compound antecedents joined by AND are usually plural.
• Pronouns that refer to compound antecedents joined by OR or NOT usually agree with the nearer antecedent. Ex: Neither Bill nor his friends cook THEIR own meals.

Question 14

Describe parallelism

Answer 14

When a sentence contains a series of items, all the items should be in parallel form. Keeping all phrases and clauses in the same form creates parallelism by clarifying the relationship among the parts of the sentence.

INCORRECT: I like running and to swim.

CORRECT: I like running and swimming.

Question 15

Describe capitalization rules for titles of persons

Answer 15

Capitalize TITLES OF PERSONS.
- Capitalize titles when they are used BEFORE a person’s name as part of the name: President Bush, King David.

• Titles FOLLOWING a name or used ALONE in place of a name are not usually capitalized unless used in direct address: THe President of the UNited States.
• Capitalize FAMILY-RELATIONSHIP words when they are used BEFORE a person’s name and when used alone IN PLACE OF a name: Uncle Mike cme over for dinner. Hello, Dad.

Question 16

Describe miscellaneous capitalization rules

Answer 16

TITLES OF WORKS:
- Capitalize the first and last words and all important words in the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, poems, stories, plays and works of art: Gone With the Wind (book), New York Times (newspaper).

• Capitalize the FIRST WORD of every sentence (including quoted sentences): Patric Henry said, “Give me liberty or give me death.”
• Capitalize the pronoun I.
• Capitalize the FIRST word in every line of poetry, whether or not the rod begins the sentence.

Question 17

Describe verbs ending in “ed” or “ing”

Answer 17

When used as adjectives, the past participle (verb+ed) and the present participle (verb+ing) of some verbs have very different meanings. Psychological ergs (interest, bore, amuse, etc) describe emotions or moods. When their participles are used as adjectives, they follow the rules below. The past participle )verb+ed) desires the person’s mental state or inner feelings: the tired student. The repent participle (verb+ing) describes the person or thing which causes the mental state or feelings: the tiring exercises or the tiring speaker.

The most common psychological verbs are: amuse, disappoint, flatter, overwhelm, annoy, disgust, fright, reassure, bore, encourage, horrify, satisfy, charm, excite, inspire, surprise, confuse, fascinate, interest.

etc etc etc

Question 18

Discuss capitalization rules for proper nouns

Answer 18

Capitalize PROPER NOUNS and words formed from proper nouns:

• Capitalize names of PARTICULAR PERSONS: George Bush
• Capitalize names of PARTICULAR PLACES: Asia, Canada, Pennsylvania Avenue
• Capitlaize names of PARTICULAR THINGS (special organizations, holidays, historical events, races and religions, languages, planets, etc): Mother’s Day, Ford truck, Englishman, Washington Memorial
• Capitalize words FORMED FROM PROPER NOUNS, such as abbreviations of proper nouns: CPA
• Capitalize common noun/adjective when PART OF a proper name: Louisiana State University

Question 19

Describe more detailed verb usage in subjunctive sentences

Answer 19

For present tense wishes, use were, the simple past tense. or would/could/might and the simple form of the try in the “that clause.” Ex: I wish that the semester were over now.

When a wish is about the past, use the past perfect or would/could/might and the present perfect in the “that clause.” Ex: He wished that the semester had ended before he ran out of money.

Ask, demand, insist, move, recommend, suggest, and urge followed by “that clauses” use the simple form of the verb to express both present and past tense. Ex: The president asks that everyone work together.

Question 20

Describe verb patterns

Answer 20

Some verbs are followed by VERBIALS (gerunds or infinitives) according to a rigid pattern –want to go but enjoy going. Listed below are the five different patterns:

• -Verb + Infinitive - Napoleon chose to marry Josephine.
• -Verb + Gerund - He is enjoying playing tennis these days.
• -Verb + Infinitive or Verb + Gerund - The boys loves going to school.
• -Verb + Object + Infinitive - They wanted us to teach them to read Spanish.

Question 21

Describe verb usage in conditional sentences

Answer 21

Verb tense is the key to writing correct conditional and subjunctive sentences:
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES express the idea that one situation depends on another. IF, WHEN, WHETHER, and UNLESS introduce conditional sentences.
Conditional sentences which express facts, general truths, or habitual actions use the simple present tense in both clauses: If the moon is full, it is hard to see the stars.
Conditional sentences which predict actions use the simple present tense in the conditional (if) clause and modal (will) in the independent clause: If it rains tonight, we will cancel the party.

Question 22

Describe verb usage in subjunctive sentences

Answer 22

The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD is used in formal written English to express conditions contrary to fact, wishes, requests, or demands. A key to writing accurate subjunctive sentences is to ignore normal rules of tense and number.
‘Condition contrary to fact’ describes a situation that does not exist now, never existed, and is unlikely ever to exist; e.g., If Thomas Jefferson were alive today…

The ‘if clause’ uses the past tense; the independent clause uses would/could/might and the base form of the verb; e.g., If I were a billionaire, I would buy all the TV networks

The ‘if clause’ uses past perfect; the independent clause uses a would/could/might and the present perfect tense; e.g. If I had been born in 1900, I would have sailed around the world.

Question 23

Describe auxiliary verbs

Answer 23

AUXILIARY VERBS (helping verbs and modals) convey important information, but they never work alone. They must combine with a main verb.

HELPING VERBS combine with a main verb to identify very tense, number and voice and to introduce questions and form negatives. THe helping verbs are DO, DO, HAVE, WILL.

Be (am/is/are/was/were/been) helps make the continuous forms and the passive voice.

Continuous forms:
be (am/is/are/was/were/been) + Present participle + (verb+ing)

The girl is running
The girl has been running
etc

Question 24

Discuss active vs passive verbs

Answer 24

In an active voice sentence, the subject is the actor.
In a passive voice sentence, the opposite is true: the subject is the receiver or the object of the action.

Active voice: Mary ricked the baby.
Passive voice: The baby was rocked by Mary.

Only transitive verbs use the passive voice.

The passive voice is formed by using be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) + past participle

In writing, always try to use the active voice. Use the passive voice sparingly; overuse of the passive voice causes a weak writing style.

Question 25

Describe present, past, and future perfect continuous very tenses.

Answer 25

the PRESENT PERFECT continuous emphasizes that an action which began in the past will continue in the future. Ex: Arlene has been studying music for three years; she still has one more year to go.

The FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS indicates an action continuing until some specific time in the future. Ex: He will have been attending school for nineteen years by the time he graduates.

The PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS emphasizes that the first action continued right up to the time of the second action. Ex: By the year 2050, people will have been living on Mars for a decade or more.

Question 26

Describe present, past, and future continuous verb tenses.

Answer 26

The PRESENT CONTINUOUS expresses ongoing byt temporary or future actions.
I am riding a bicycle now.
She is flying to Australia next summer.

PAST CONTINUOUS usually expresses an action in progress at the time of another past action.
Sheila was attending a class when the fire alarm went off.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS expresses a future action.
She will be driving to Maine next year.

Question 27

Describe present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect verb tenses.

Answer 27

The PRESENT PERFECT TENSE emphasizes the completion of an action in then try recent past
I have just purchased a necklace.

The PRESENT PERFECT TENSE can also indicate an action begun in the past and continued up to the present moment.
Sam has lived at the same house for ten years.

The PAST PERFECT indicates how two finished actions are related in time. The first completed action uses the past perfect while the second action uses the simple past.
Before he went blind, Milton has written Paradise Lost.

FUTURE PERFECT indicates an action to be finished before a future time.
I will have finished the book before I take the exam.

Question 28

Describe simple present, simple past, and future verb tenses.

Answer 28

Verbs change form to agree with the subject of the action and to indicate the time or tense of the action. Verb tenses can be categorized as simple or perfect. Each of these tenses has a continuous form.

SIMPLE PRESENT tense expresses habitual or repeated actions, general truths, future actions, literary or historic present, and states or qualities of being. IN statements, DO/DOES expresses emphasis.
Susie exercises on Thursdays and Fridays.
Fred is a doctor.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE expresses finished actions. DID in statements expresses emphasis.
World War II ended in 1945.

FUTURE TENSE expresses actions or conditions occurring in the future. SImple present tense with an adverb of tie can indicate future.
She will see it next week.

Question 29

Describe linking verbs.

Answer 29

Linking verbs do not express actin; linking verbs express a state of being. Linking verbs are followed by nouns or adjectives.
John was a doctor. The grapefruit is too sour.

Here is a list of frequently used linking verbs:
Be (is, are, was were, am, been, being) - most common. Sense-related verbs (feel, look, smell, sound, taste).

A noun following a linking verb renames the subject.
He is a doctor.

Some verbs (appear, become, feel, grow, look, smell, sound, and taste) are either linking verbs or action verbs, depending on their meaning in a sentence.
Mary grew ill. OR We grew tomatoes.

Question 30

Describe transitive and intransitive verbs.

Answer 30

Action verbs tell why happens. They are either transitive (buy, kick, see) or intransitive (walk, fall)

TRANSITIVE verb = action verb requiring a direct or indirect object (noun, pronoun, noun phrase or clause) to complete its meaning.
Mary showed the ring.
The country elected him President.

INTRANSITIVE verb = action very which can not accept a direct object and is followed by an adverbial modifier - adverb, prepositional phrase or nothing at all.
Fred jumped high.
Fred jumped in the puddle.
Fred jumped.

Question 31

Describe sentence structure.

Answer 31

A sentence can be identified according to it structure: simple, compound, complex or compound-complex.

Every SIMPLE sentence is an independent clause; subject+verb, complete thought, grammatically independent.
It rained yesterday.

COMPOUND sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a semi-colon (;) or comma (,) or coordinating conjunction (and, but, or).
She likes to eat fruit, and I like to eat vegetables.

COMPLEX sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clause is introduced by a relative pronoun (who, which, that, etc) or a subordinating conjunction (although, because, when, etc).
Because I like to drink milk, my bones are very strong.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX sentence has two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses.
The plane arrived and we took off, because we were already late.

Question 32

Describe the function of verb.

Answer 32

Verbs state what happens (such as eat or run) or describe a state of being (such as be or appear). All verbs indicate time (hear heard, will hear; is, was, will be).

All verbs need a subject identifying who or what is acting or being - I think; I am.

Some verbs also have a direct object (He eats meat).

Verbs have 5 forms: base form, past tense, past participle, present participle, infinitive.

Regular verbs form the past tense and the past participle by adding -ed to the base form of the verb (kick/kicked/kicked).

Irregular verbs form the past tense and past participle in many different ways: buy, bought, bought; see, saw, seen.

Question 33

Describe: 
demonstrative pronouns
reflexive pronouns
intensive pronouns
reciprocal pronouns.

Answer 33

DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns indicate distance.
this/these - nearness in time or space
that/those - more distant time/space
this/that - singular
these/those - plural

INDEFINITE pronouns used when exact quantity or identity of a person, idea or thing is unknown.
Singular: anybody, everyone, something
Plural: few, many, several
singular/plural: most, some

INTENSIVE/REFLEXIVE pronouns are made by adding -self, -selves to personal pronouns: myself, ourselves.
Intensive emphasizes the noun or pronoun that comes before it.

RECIPROCAL pronouns are each other, one another. They refer back to a compound or plural subject to indicate a relationship.

Question 34

Describe the function of a sentence.

Answer 34

The sent ice is the basic unit of communication in English and has two parts: SUBJECT + PREDICATE.
Subject - topic (noun or pronoun)
Predicate - comments on the topic (verb)

PURPOSE refers to its function:
DECLARATIVE= makes a statement and ends with a period (.). Animals have their own language.
INTERROGATIVE=asks a question and ends with a question mark (?). Do animals have their own language?
IMPERATIVE=gives a command or makes a request, ends with period (.) or exclamation point (!). Come with me.
EXCLAMATORY=shows sudden or strong feeling, ends with exclamation point (!). How beautiful she is!

Question 35

Describe the function of:
prepositions
prepositional phrases
preposition idioms

Answer 35

PREPOSITIONS are connectors, connecting words with follow them to the rest of the sentence. Most common:
about, above, aboard, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, outside, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, without

A preposition must be followed by a nominal (noun, pronoun gerund, noun phrase or noun clause).

Prepositional phrases act as adjectives or adverbs.

Idiomatic use of prepositions - some adjectives, nouns, and verbs are always followed by the same preposition: afraid of, agree with.

Question 36

Describe the functions of:
pronouns
personal pronouns
interrogative pronouns
relative pronouns

Answer 36

PRONOUN always refers back to a noun, which is the pronoun’s “antecedent”. Pronoun and antecedent must always agree in number and gender:
We were happy when our (antecedent->) relatives cam. It was great seeing (pronoun->) them.

PERSONAL pronoun refers to a person or thing and can be a subject, object or possessive. Usually change form depending on if used as subject, object of a sentence:
1st person: I, we, me, us, mine, ours
2nd person: you, yours
3rd person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, hers, theirs

INTERROGATIVE pronouns ask questions: who, whom, which, what, whose

RELATIVE pronouns introduce adjective and noun clauses: who whom, which, that, whose.
Relative pronouns with -ever form (whatever, whichever, whoever, whomever) have an indefinite meaning and don;t refer back to a specific noun.

Question 37

Describe:
infinitive phrase
participle phrase
prepositional phrase

Answer 37

PHRASE=group of related words acting as one word - a noun, adjective, or adverb.

INFINITIVES are to+verb (to run).
Infinitive phrase ads an object or modifier.
Can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

PARTICIPLES are verb+ing (running).
Participle phrases function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. participle in phrase shows tense and voice.
GERUND PHRASE=participle w/ object or modifier - acts as a noun
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE=same - acts as an adjective
ABSOLUTE PHRASE=participle has a subject and modifies an entire sentence.

PREPOSITIONAL phrase preposition+ its object or modifiers -> adjectives or adverbs

APPOSITIVE phrase identifies or defines the word it follows.

Question 38

Describe the parts of speech

Answer 38

Parts of speech:
adjectives, adverbs, articles, conjunctions, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs, interjections = words that make up a sentence.

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs - essential functions, provide content.

Conjunctions and prepositions connect sentences to each other AND within a sentence connect one part to another.

Question 39

Discuss noun phrases.

Answer 39

NOUN PHRASES are groups of words which act as nouns.

GERUND PHRASE=participle (verb+ing or verb+ed) and is modifiers acting as a noun. Show tense and voice.
Fran hates doing her laundry.
Having learned to speak Spanish qualified Jennifer as an interpreter.

INFINITIVE PHRASE= to+verb and modifiers or object, shows tense and voice.
To have our own children was always our dream.
His goal is to become a millionaire.

Question 40

Discuss comparing nouns.

Answer 40

compare nouns - similar to or same as
contrast nouns - use different from.

Common noun suffixes often added to other parts of speech to form nouns (-ance, -ant, -ence, -er, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ment, -mess, -tion, -ship). Sometimes added to nouns to create other nouns.

Question 41

Describe mass, collective, and abstract nouns

Answer 41

MASS NOUNS= concrete nouns that name things that cannot be separated into individual units (snow, sugar, water, air, toothpaste)

COLLECTIVE NOUNS=collections of different kinds of things: equipment, furniture, luggage, traffic.

ABSTRACT NOUNS=qualities, emotions, concepts. Name things that cannot be touched, seen, smelled, heard, or tasted - happiness, anger, love, liberty, equality, democracy.

Question 42

Describe the function of a noun.

Answer 42

NOUNS name things - persons, places, actions or ideas.
Are subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, objects of prepositions, predicate complements, and predicate nouns.
Show possession.
Most are count nouns naming things that can be touched, seen, smelled, heard, tasted.
A - for singular
The - both singular and plural

Collective count nouns identify a group (team, family, herd, crowd, class) - should use singular verb tense with these.

Most count nouns form plural by adding “s”
–ball/balls, toe/toes
Those ending in “s, sh, x, z” should add “es”
–box/boxes, wish/wishes, glass/glasses

Question 43

Describe coordinating and correlative conjunctions

Answer 43

CONJUNCTIONS join words, phrases and clauses, showing the relationship between them.
Categories include coordinating, correlative and subordinating.
COORDINATING conjunctions join grammatically equal words, phrases, or clauses (two pronouns, two prepositional phrases, tow independent class, etc). – AND, BUT, OR NOR

COORELATIVE conjunctions used in pairs to join two or more words, phrases or clauses that are grammatically equal. – BOTH…AND, NOT ONLY…BUT ALSO, EITHER…OR, WHETHER…OR, NEITHER…NOR

Question 44

Describe subordinating conjunctions

Answer 44

SUBORDINATING conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses, joining dependent adverb clases to an independent clause.
Cause: as, because, since
Comparison: more than, as…as
Conditional: event if, if, unless
Contrast: although, event though, though
Manner: as, as if, as though
Place: where, wherever
Purpose: in order that, so that
Result: so…that
Time: after, before, since, until, when

Question 45

Discuss adverb unequal comparisons

Answer 45

UNEQUAL COMPARISONS– Adverbs can be used to compare and contrast similar actions
Comparative: compare two actions
–use -er/more, less
Superlative: refer to the one in group of 3+that is outstanding example of action
–use -est/most, least.

One-syllable