English techniques

Question 1

ACCUMULATIVE LISTING / ACCUMULATION

Answer 1

Mentioning a multitude of similar things in the same sentence, emphasising the common qualities that each of the items hold. This can help audiences understand better the fundamental qualities of a concept/idea through multiple examples.

Example:
“What syllabus of intellectual pursuits was simultaneously possible? Snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, …. contemplation of celestial constellations…”

Question 2

ADAGE / PROVERB / MAXIM

Answer 2

Terse, memorable saying that is based on facts and has been passed on over many generations. Proverbs are a subset of adages which are often used in everyday speech and contain more practical applications, while adages contain general truths with universal applications. They both make the reader aware of some truth of life, possibly handing out a moral lesson or wisdom. Maxims are a subset of adage that pertain to a rule of conduct.

Example

“Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.”
“All that glitters is not gold” is more a proverb than an adage (there is overlap).
“It’s better to be safe than sorry.” is a maxim as it relates to moralistic values.

Question 3

ALLEGORY

Answer 3

A type of extended metaphor involving a story/tale with two meanings. Second meaning often acts as commentary on real world events or issues. Differs from conceit in that allegories don’t explicitly acknowledge their metaphorical nature.

Example:
Animal Farm

Question 4

ALLITERATION

Answer 4

When a number of words with the same first consonant sound occur close together. Effects and can be adapted to suit most contexts.

Example:
“The white foam flew through the furrow, following free” gives off a soft, ethereal sensation.

Question 5

ALLUSION

Answer 5

A subtle reference to an event, person, place, etc. intended to be noticed by some readers, in order to deepen the meaning of the text.

Question 6

AMPLIFICATION

Answer 6

When a sentence or statement is embellished by adding further information, increasing the intensity/meaning of what is conveyed within. Brings readers’ attention to an idea, which they miss otherwise.

Example:
“If a person has ugly thoughts, it begins to show on the face. And when that person has ugly thoughts every day, every week, every year, the face gets uglier and uglier until you can hardly bear to look at it.”

Question 7

ANALOGY

Answer 7

Two similar concepts or ideas to create a relationship or draw comparisons between the two. Used to relate two concepts or explain another.

Question 8

ANAPHORA

Answer 8

Repetition of a clause at the beginning of successive sentences in order to emphasise and reinforce meaning.

Example:
“Stay safe. Stay well. Stay happy.”

Question 9

ANASTROPHE / INVERSION

Answer 9

A form of hyperbaton in which only one word is removed from the normal order to emphasise a certain idea or feeling.

Example:
“Tall he stood above the crowd.”

Question 10

ANECDOTE

Answer 10

A short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident, often used to support or demonstrate some point, or to engender discussion/rumination on the topic at hand.

Question 11

BATHOS

Answer 11

An abrupt decline from the building narrative or rising tension, typically for comic effect. When used intentionally, it devalues the subject, and creates contrast between the trivial nature of the subject and the preceding ideas. When unintentional, it is known as bathos. For example, a buildup of a serious conversation only to be interjected with a fatuous comment would be bathos.

Example:
“He lost his family, his job, and his house plants.”

Question 12

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

Answer 12

Representation of animals or objects with human characteristics. Differs from personification in that personification creates imagery, while anthropomorphism actually ascribes humanising aspects to animals/objects to appeal to a wider audience, and make complex concepts more approachable, making it good for political and social satires etc.

Question 13

ANTITHESIS

Answer 13

Using two sentences/clauses with contradictory/contrasting meanings close to one another, in order to create strong contrast. Two sentences balance each other out through opposite connotations, representing a whole idea. Usually used to show how an idea may be contradictory but still whole.

Example:
“Man proposes, God disposes”
“Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit”

Question 14

APHORISM

Answer 14

A saying that tersely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world. Do not have to be funny, and they always convey an idea that is supposed to hold some universal truth. Aphorisms pack a punch in transmitting an idea.

Example:
“You can’t always get what you want”

Question 15

APPROPRIATION

Answer 15

A text that is a reinterpretation of a past text, removed from its original context, but retaining the same character and rough plot. Audience can learn how context influences the events of the plot, and the timelessness of certain concepts.

Question 16

CARICATURE

Answer 16

Where particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic effect. Effective as a unique form of expression or derision against a subject, to possibly criticise a conflicting ideology or societal problem etc.

Question 17

CATACHRESIS

Answer 17

Catachresis involves misusing words to convey something completely different from their literal meanings, or paradoxical statements to create strained metaphors.

Question 18

CLICHÉ

Answer 18

A form of human expression (words, gestures etc.) which, due to repetitive use in social life, has lost its original heuristic power.

Examples:
“in the nick of time”
“a single tear trickled down her cheek”

Question 19

CLIMAX

Answer 19

Where successive (three or more) words, phrases, clauses are arranged in ascending order of importance & intensity. Establishes a clear hierarchy, and enhances audiences’ understanding of your point.

Example:
“I came, I saw, I conquered”

Question 20

CONCEIT

Answer 20

When two vastly different ideas/objects are linked together with the help of similes and metaphors, developing a relationship that is seemingly unlikely yet rather surprising. These help readers view things in a new way.

Question 20

CONCEIT

Answer 20

When two vastly different ideas/objects are linked together with the help of similes and metaphors, developing a relationship that is seemingly unlikely yet rather surprising. These help readers view things in a new way.

Example:
A broken heart is like a damaged clock”, the sheer dissimilarity forces the reader the ponder the relationship in a new way, unlike similes which are comparatively direct.

Question 21

DOUBLE ENTENDRE

Answer 21

Phrase or word that can have several meanings

Question 22

DRAMATIC IRONY

Answer 22

Audience is privy to some information the characters do not know, building audience tension, suspense.

Question 23

EPIGRAPH

Answer 23

Short quotation, phrase, or poem placed at the beginning of another piece of writing. This sets their work in dialogue with the work referenced to convey a sense of relation, or to establish themes/tone/context carried on from the cited text before reading.

Example:
Ondaatje’s In The Skin of a Lion contains an epigraph, “I will let my hair grow…”

Question 24

EPIZEUXIS

Answer 24

Repetition of the same word or short phrase many times in rapid succession in the same sentence. Less refined than epiphora/anaphora, but more impact, as it brings much attention to the repeated words.

Example:
“It flowed down, down, down, without cessation.”

Question 25

EUPHEMISM

Answer 25

A decorous expression replacing one that is harsh, or otherwise offensive in order to diminish the vulgarity. These are common when referring to topics of obscene nature.

Example:
“he passed away”

Question 26

Flashback/forward

Answer 26

Flashbacks can provide background or context to the current events, presenting insight into motivations, incitations etc. Flash-forwards give logical explanations as to the actions of characters.

Question 27

FORM

Answer 27

Construction and structure of a text, including language choices, sentence structures, writing style, poetic styles (limerick, haiku). These can be influenced by the composer’s contextual literary paradigm, or may be used to convey a certain feeling (e.g. a story told through episodic vignettes (non-linear narrative) instils the idea that stories are created through patching together multiple viewpoints)

Question 28

HYPERBOLE / ADYNATON

Answer 28

Purposeful over-exaggeration in order to create a more intense effect. Usually used in conjunction with similes and metaphors to elicit a greater emotional reaction, and can sometimes be used for humour if contrasted to an otherwise mundane setting. Hyperbole taken to the extreme to the point of impossibility is adynaton.

Example:
“Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand?” is adynaton.

Question 29

ICON

Answer 29

An object, image or person that symbolises something larger, usually a complex concept or theme. “Hero” characters, for example, represent their heroic ideas and values.

Example:
Big Brother is an icon used by the Ingsoc Party in Nineteen Eighty-Four to symbolise their power, omnipotence and total control over citizens.

Question 30

IDIOM

Answer 30

A set expression or phrase that is not interpreted literally. These are used to convey subtle meaning and make language more elaborate. Usually idioms express ideas more complex than otherwise conveyable in the same amount of words, making the text more concise and coherent.

Example:
“Every cloud has a silver lining”

Question 31

IMAGERY

Answer 31

Descriptive language used to create an idea or mental image of something, ensuring audiences have a very clear idea of what is happening or how it feels. Sensory imagery may enhance the verisimilitude of a setting, or reveal a character’s attitude to a particular situation. Common subtypes: vivid, olfactory, tactile, auditory, gustatory, visual, violent.

Question 32

INTERTEXTUALITY

Answer 32

When one text makes reference to another text, through allusions or otherwise, in order draw a conclusion or establish links between the two. Similar characters may be present in both texts, from which we can compare and contrast their qualities and possibly how this links to context.

Question 33

METONYMY

Answer 33

Referring to something not by its actual name but by a figurative name or something associated with it. This establishes a connection between the two objects, and may be used in conjunction with connotation, tone etc.

Example:
“Show me your heart”, where the heart is used to figuratively represent someone’s emotions or true desires etc.

Question 34

MOTIFS / LEITMOTIF

Answer 34

Idea, symbol, object, concept that is always present throughout an entire text, playing a significant/symbolic role in the narrative. They tie into the central ideas of the narrative or may reflect a certain message the author is trying to present. Leitmotifs are motifs that represent a certain character.

Example:
In Nineteen Eight-Four, the glass paperweight is a motif that represents past culture, as well as the privacy of Julia and Winston in Mr Charrington’s room (and the fragility of this privacy).

Question 35

NEOLOGISM

Answer 35

Newly-created word that may be completely new or combinations of old and new words. The words may reflect the context of the author/character and reveal more about the society they live in (as neologisms tend to reflect priorities/values of their time period).

Example:
“Banana Republic”

Question 36

PARADOX

Answer 36

Aseeminglycontradictorystatementthatcontainsatruthoropinionupondeepermeditation, inviting a reader to understand an underlying logic not obvious at first glance.

Example:
“Youth is wasted on the young”.

Question 37

SYNECDOCHE

Answer 37

Using part of something to refer to the whole, sometimes the converse. Synecdoche creates meaningful connections between the significant part and the whole, allowing authors to express ideas in unique ways to create deeper meaning for readers.

Example:
“Jenny turned up in brand-spanking-new wheels, after which I hit the sheets.”

Question 38

ZEUGMA

Answer 38

When a word (usually verb/adj) applies to two words in different senses, blending grammatically and logically distinct ideas. Good for embellishing expressions and adding artistic emphasis to ideas, creating a dramatic effect and conciseness that may surprise readers.

Example:
“John lost his coat and his temper.”

Question 39

ZOOMORPHISM

Answer 39

A technique in which animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and events. It is used to more effectively describe different characters and provide comparison.

Question 40

ANADIPLOSIS

Answer 40

Repeating last word of a sentence at the beginning of the next one. Used to emphasise certain words or drive home an idea.
Example:
“When I give, I give myself.”

Question 41

ANTANACLASIS

Answer 41

nverse of zeugma. A word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but means something different each time it appears. This can be used for memorability, or to convince readers of an argument. Also helps to contrast and emphasise the two different meanings of he repeated word.

Example:
“Cats like Felix like Felix.” — here “like” is repeated with different meaning.

Question 42

ENTHYMEME

Answer 42

An argumentative statement where one of the major or minor premises is omitted, not clearly pronounced, or is implied, yet remains understandable. Makes the audience work out their own conclusions, making them develop by themselves a clearer picture of a premise. May even strengthen the argument by forcing the audience to take a final step.

Example:
“Where there is smoke, there is fire.” — implies causation enthymemetically.

Question 43

EPANALEPSIS

Answer 43

When the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end of that same clause or sentence, with words intervening (the repeated material does not have to be 100% identical). Conveys a sense of “bookending”. Places greater emphasis on a string of words or an idea.

Example:
“The king is dead, long live the king!”

Question 44

EPIGRAM

Answer 44

A pithy witticism that conveys a single thought or observation, usually with a satirical twist. They can also reinforce ideas by making them easy to remember, but some serve similar purpose to aphorisms or proverbs.

Example:
“The coldest winter I ever spent was a summer in San Francisco.”

Question 45

FOIL

Answer 45

A character that specifically contrasts the main character in order to emphasise the main character’s attributes. The foil may hold differing ideas or different ways of dealing with the same situations and usually shares a similar background to the main character, as if being portrayed as what the main character “could have been”.

Question 46

FRAME NARRATIVE

Answer 46

“Story within a story” where the main narrative is being told/remembered by someone in the outside narrative. Such a setup underlines the contrast between the insider vs outsider’s points of view.

Question 47

IMPLIED METAPHOR

Answer 47

A type of metaphor that compares two unlike things without actually mentioning one of those things. Helps readers grasp complex phenomena and unfamiliar ideas, injecting deeper and hidden meanings, broadening their imaginations.

Example:
“Robert brayed his refusal to leave.” — compares Robert to a mule (and thus having a mule’s stubbornness) without mentioning anything about mules.

Question 48

PARATAXIS

Answer 48

When words, phrases, clauses are set next to each other so that each element is equally important. Parataxis can be syndetic or asyndetic. Common on advertising slogans to make them memorable and straightforward. It can also add to the mystery of the text, or emphasise each component, while projecting a sense of objectivity.

Example:
“He was grey and he was woolly, and his pride was inordinate…”

Question 49

PLEONASM

Answer 49

Use of unnecessary words that are redundant to drive home meaning in a sentence. Reinforces an assertion or idea, making it clearer to understand.

Example:
“Burning fire to roast the tuna fish”, “I myself saw it with my own eyes”

Question 50

POLYSYNDETON (SYNDETON)

Answer 50

Opposite of asyndeton, where there is copious use of conjunctions between each word, phrase or clause in order to convey a sense of continuity. Can lay emphasis to the connected ideas. Syndeton is when there is only one conjunction, but that is very weak.

Example:
“We have ships and men and money and stores.”

Question 51

Pysma

Answer 51

A couple of rhetorical questions in quick sucession

Question 52

TRICOLON

Answer 52

A rhetorical technique consisting of three parallel clauses, phrases or words, which happen to come in quick succession. Gives the statement a greater sense of roundness, completeness, and wholeness. Makes the idea much more memorable and powerful.

Example:
“Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired…”