English Language paper 2 Flashcards
Lakoff
- deficit approach
- 1975
- marked language
- male language is the norm
- male language is stronger and more desirable
- women speak less frequently
- they use fillers to agree
- women use a higher pitch and speak quietly
- they use tag questions- inferior
Jennifer Coates
- difference approach
- suggested that all female talk is cooperative, speakers negotiate and support each other.
- she claimed that these patterns were not found in mixed sex talk.
Jane Pilkington
- difference approach
- she found that women in same sex conversations were more collaborative than men. she thought that women aimed for the positive politeness strategy whereas men were less complimentary.
Koenraad Kuiper
- difference approach
- when studying a male rugby team, he found that they pay less attention to face and used insults to show solidarity.
Deborah Cameron
- difference approach
- believes that there are innate differences between the sexes.
- men are naturally competitive which results in an aggressive speech style.
- women talk about people and relationships whereas men talk about facts and things.
Deborah Tannen
- difference approach
Male Female
status support independence intimacy advice understanding information feelings orders proposals conflict compromise
Pamela Fisherman
- dominance approach
- females use tag questions more than men.
- they had to use them to get men to respond (disagreed with Lakoff)
- men interrupt, hold the floor and choose topics.
Zimmerman and West
- dominance approach
- 96% of interruptions in a mixed sex conversation were made by men.
- women give up their dominance
Wareing
- 1999
Types of power
Political- politicians, police, law.
Personal- teachers, employees.
Social group- class, gender, age.
What is the ‘post- vocalic r’?
pronouncing an ‘r’ after a vowel where there is an ‘r’ in the spelling. eg; farm, horse
what is code switching?
when a bilingual speaker will use and alternate between different languages when talking.
what are the four stages of standardisation?
Selection- language is selected, usually a prestigious one.
Codification- reduction of internal variability, establishment of norms.
Elaboration- the selected language is developed for a variety of purposes- this may involves expansion of linguistic resources.
Implementation- the standard English must be given currency by making texts available, encouraging users to develop pride and loyalty.
Inkhorn terms
foreign borrowing into english
change from above
change that is initiated by those in a dominant social position
change from below
driven by the users of a language, developing or adapting according to their own social needs.
what was the great vowel shift?
1400-1600 - a dramatic and important sound shift/ change over 200 years, the pronunciation of long vowel sounds changed. toe-- to weef-- wife moos- mouse bayn-- been heer- her
what is the crumbling castle metaphor?
language is crumbling and needs to be preserved, implies that the English language was gradually and lovingly assembled until it reached a point of maximum splendour. (Jean Aitchinson)
what is the damp spoon metaphor?
bad English sticks to people who are lazy and passive, just like people who put a damp spoon into a sugar bowel.
‘the only lazy speech is drunken speech’. (Jean Aitchinson)
what did Simon Heffer believe?
he believed that words could only have one set definition and that they should only be used in their correct form. Prescriptivist.
what did Milroy and Milroy say about standardisation?
‘standardisation is an ongoing process and an ideological struggle’. (1985)
what is English as a lingua franca?
English used as a contact language between speakers of different first languages.
Prescriptivism
the idea that language should be fixed, prescribed to a set of rules for language usage, with any shift being seen as incorrect
