English exam revision Flashcards
Language and its Functions
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ANIMAL LANGUAGE vs HUMAN LANGUAGE,
Hockett’s Design Features
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1 - Mode of communication
For humans this is eihtier vocal- auditory (spoken) or tactile visual (signed). For animals we add chemical -alfactory to the list (e.g- animal pheromones).
Language is vocal (spoken) and tactile (signed) whereas communication is vocal (spoken), tactile (signed) AND chemical - olfactory.
2 - Broadcast is directional
A message of human language is directed towards someone. Whereas animal communication is usually radient (e.g- Bird cries, territorial marking)
Language is direct whereas communication is more like general.
3 - Semanticity
The unit of human language are symbolic in that they stand for something other than themselves (e.g- tree = an actual tree) Animals use non-symbolic animal communication (e.g-barking)
Language is symbolic whereas communication is non-symbolic.
4 - Arbitrary
There is no real relation between the signifier (word) and signified (what it refers to). Rather we as humans assign this meaning E.g. we have decided that this particular set of symbols ‘tree’ represents a well..tree
5 - Displacement
Human language is used to communicate things that are not about the here and now. Animals communication is typically restricted to the here and now.
Launguage can talk about the past, present and future whereas communication only talks about the present (the now).
Differences between communication and langauge
Communication:
- Always at the moment (in the present)
- Non-symbolic
- Chemical Olfactory
-Usually radient
Uses signals to understand each other
Language:
- Sharing an idea
- Can be directed to someone
- Can talk about the past or future (displacement)
- Symbolic
- Has name for each thing
Similarities between communication and language
- Vocal (spoken) and tactile (signal)
Arbitrariness of language
There is no real relation between the signifier (word) and signified (what it refers to). Rather we as humans assign this meaning E.g. we have decided that this particular set of symbols ‘tree’ represents a well..tree
Functions of Language
The purpose of a message.
Emotive
The emotive function allows users to express emotions and desires. It’s sometimes referred to as the expressive function. This function usually relates to the addresser and their presentation of emotion.
Referential
The referential function is the sharing of information with an intended audience. This information may or may not be true, but the language user presents the message as factual and objective, commonly using declarative sentences.
Poetic
The poetic function focuses on the formation of the message itself, rather than on the addresser or addressee. It is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic function because it concerns the beauty or wit of the text’s composition.
Metalinguistic
A text that has a metalinguistic function describes language itself, such as using the metalanguage ‘nouns’ and ‘vowels’.
The metalinguistic function allows speakers to check whether they have been understood or are using the right code (type of language) for the conversation. Typically, the code would be a standard language such as Australian English, but it could also be a variation that is used within a specific context, such as slang used among close friends orjargon (specialised language) in a workplace.
Phatic
Texts that have a phatic function are designed to create and maintain social connections between the addresser and the addressee. These messages tend to be somewhat meaningless outside a social context and the focus is on the contact - the way the message is delivered and received. For example, when an acquaintance asks how your day has been, or if you’ve had a nice weekend, an honest answer is rarely expected; usually a polite, general, positive response is required.
Conative
The conative function typically involves directions, questions and commands. Messages with a conative function aim to cause the addressee (the audience) to react in some way.
Register
Is it formal or not
Tenor
The relationships between participants in a communicative exchange.( positive, negative and neutral)
Audience
The intended listener/s or reader/s of a text.
Language mode
WRITTEN texts have been viewed as being more formal, often using a standard form of language with features such as conventional spelling, punctuation and grammar.
SPOKEN texts were viewed as having more casual language than written texts, containing long and loosely connected ideas that don’t necessarily fit the grammatical definition of
a ‘sentence’.
Semantic field
Semantic field refers to a set of lexemes that are semantically related. For example: lexemes in the semantic filed of ‘talents’ might include:
singing, dancing, juggling, speed-reading and tight-rope walking.
Language Acquisition
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Pre-linguistic stage
Babies start hearing their mother’s language in the womb. We know from preferential sucking studies on neonates (freshly born babies) that babies show a preference not only for the sound of their mother’s voice, but for the sounds of her tongue. Hence the phrase ‘mother language’. From birth to around 6 months of age babies begin communicating in themes basic of forms: crying for food, crying of discomfort, cooing when pleased, gurgling when confused.
Babbling stage
From around six to twelve months of age babies start to experiment with sounds. By this stage they have developed better motor control of their mouth, neck, head and lungs. They can also see better, meaning they can copy the faces of their caregivers. This all allows them to start practising mimicking sounds. Universally across languages, the informal words for parents or close family (ie mum, dad, mama, baba rather than father, and mother) are made up of the sounds that babies make in this stage.
Holophrastic stage
From around 12 to 18 months of age, young children start to utter their first words. They start to connect these with meaning, rather than making random sounds. In this stage, children will use one word to mean many things. For example, they might say ‘dog’ to show you that they have seen a dog, or they might say ‘dog’ to get you to pass them their dog toy. They use one word to represent a whole phrase hence holophrastic.
Two-word stage
Between 18 to 24 months, the toddler will start connecting two words together to from a greater meaning. By now the child has a better understanding of both syntax and semantics. In English, two word utterances usually develop as a noun + verb e.g … ‘mama look’.
Telegraphic stage
Children enter this stage between 24 and 30 months. This stage is categorised by a combination of content words but the the omission of grammatical function words. For example, ‘I want go park’ vs ‘I want to go to the park’.
Multiword stage
From around 30 months onwards, children enters the multi-word stage. Children will start to use grammatical function words, their vocabulary increases and they are able to make more sophisticated word combination to express thoughts, requests and ask questions. Phrasing becomes more complex in this stage and will continue to develop into adulthood.
Universal Grammar + Chomsky
The theory that children are born with innate knowledge about the structure of language, which allows them to adopt any language. This innate grammar involves a set of language rules that are assumed to be universal, shared by all languages of the world.
Usage-based theory + Tomasello
Proposes that children acquire language through social interaction, in combination with their general cognitive skills; that they gain knowledge and skills by using language throughout their life; and that an important role is played by caregivers using infant- or child-directed speech.
Critical Age hypothesis
The hypothesis that learning a new language in beginning of early childhood and ending around puberty. During this period the brain has a higher level of neuroplasticity (ability to change). Alter this time, learning grammar is more dificult.
