England’s relations with Scotland and other foreign powers, 1485–1509 Flashcards
What was John Guys interpretation of Henry 7th foreign policy all together?
Do they align with Henry’s aims?
“Throughout his reign Henry VII’s foreign policy was defensive: he reacted to external events in order to secure his Crown and dynasty. Initially in debt to Brittany and France, he had to neutralise the capacity of France, Spain, Burgundy and Scotland to profit from Yorkist claimants and safeguard his northern border with Scotland.”
Henry’s foreign policy aims were straightforward:
• to maintain good relations with European powers (thus allowing him to consolidate his power at home)
• to gain international recognition for the Tudor dynasty
• to maintain national security
• to defend English trading interests.
Why did Henry 7 seek to maintain positive relations with foreign powers ?
Henry’s foreign policy aims were essentially straightforward.
- He had no grand plans to assert English power in Europe, and was therefore more concerned with maintaining good relations and defence.
- He certainly had no intention of restarting the Hundred Years War with France.
- Broadly speaking, he sought to maintain positive relations with foreign powers to ensure:
• national security
• recognition of the Tudor dynasty
• defence of English trading interests.
KEY CHRONOLOGY:
Relations between Brittany and France.
- 1487:
1. The French invaded the Duchy of Brittany, the last independent area within France.
2. The death of Duke Francis II of Brittany, without a male heir, provided the excuse. - 1489
1. Treaty of Redon – Henry agreed to support the claim of Duke Francis’ young daughter, Duchess Anne, although he was anxious not to antagonise the French. - 1491
1. 6000 English ‘volunteers’ were sent to Brittany but Anne surrendered to the French; it was arranged that she should marry Charles VIII of France, ending Breton independence. - 1492
1. Based on intelligence that Charles was more interested in invading Italy than fighting the English, Henry raised two parliamentary subsidies and invaded France with 26,000 men. The French rapidly sought peace
2. November – Treaty of Etaples; Charles agreed that he would no longer assist any pretenders to the English throne. Henry was also to receive 745,000 crowns, paid in annual instalments of 50,000 crowns a year. This was around 5% of Henry’s total annual income
Why was Henry alarmed that the French would gain complete control over Brittany?
Henry’s first major foreign policy involvement came in Brittany, a fiefdom of the French Crown which had enjoyed effective independence.
- Following an invasion in 1487 it looked as if the French would gain complete control of Brittany.
- This alarmed Henry who, in 1489, summoned Parliament to grant him extraordinary revenue to raise an army against the French.
There were two main reasons for this:
• his sense of obligation to the Bretons
• his fear that direct French control of Brittany could increase a potential French threat to England.
What treaty was made between Brittany and England on February 1489 and why ?
England and Brittany agreed the Treaty of Redon in February 1489 after the death of Anne’s father, Duke Francis II, had left Brittany as a weaker independent target.
- Duchess Anne would pay for a small English army to defend Brittany from the French threat.
What came from this treaty of Redon?
- Henry tried to strengthen his position by an alliance with Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emperor-elect.
- Maximilian was a widower, and he had agreed to marry Anne of Brittany by proxy (marriage-by-proxy: a legal agreement where someone stands in for the person at the wedding — they weren’t married in person yet).
- Because of this, Maximilian didn’t want France to take over Brittany either, since that would mean his future wife and her land would be lost to France.
Why did Henry suffer an immediate setback after his first foreign adventure?
- The English army went to Brittany but Anne, fearing the futility of prolonged resistance to the French, surrendered and reluctantly married Charles VIII.
- This left the English army marooned in Brittany, and also meant that Maximilian lost interest in the matter, which left Henry in a difficult position.
- The situation was made worse for Henry by Perkin Warbeck seeking French backing for his claim to the English throne.
In his first foreign adventure Henry had suffered an immediate setback.
Why did Henry launch an invasion of France in 1492?
To recover his position after the failure of his first foreign adventure skilfully.
- He launched an invasion of France in 1492, rather late in the campaigning season, and the French quickly sought a peace settlement.
- Though Henry’s invasion might have appeared a gamble, he used information from his agents that Charles VIII was much more interested in launching an invasion of Italy and would therefore quickly seek a peace settlement with Henry.
Henry showed enough flexibility in his approach to benefit from this change in French priorities.
What treaty was signed November 1492 and what did it ensure ?
The Treaty of Etaples in November 1492:
- Charles VIII agreed to withdraw his support for Perkin Warbeck.
- A paid pension to Henry to compensate him for the expense of having recruited an army of invasion.
Significance:
- Henry’s strategy had proved successful, and he had managed to defend national and dynastic interests.
- Moreover, he had improved his financial position and ensured a period of relative cordiality in Anglo-French relations.
KEY CHRONOLOGY:
Relations with Burgundy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire
- 1493
1. Following Margaret’s support for Perkin Warbeck, Henry broke trade relations with Burgundy.
(He was more concerned with securing his dynasty than protecting the commercial interests of London and east-coast merchants, but the embargo harmed both the English and Flemish economies) - 1496
1. Henry VII and Philip IV agreed the Intercursus Magnus (‘Great Intercourse’) which ended the trade embargo, and Margaret recognised Henry’s position as king - 1503
1. Death of Margaret of Burgundy - 1506
1. Philip and his wife, Juana, daughter of Isabella of Castile (in Spain) were blown into the English coast as they set out for Spain following Isabella’s death in 1504. Henry VII entertained them for three months and negotiated two treaties:
• By the Treaty of Windsor, he recognised Philip’s claim to Castile, and they each promised to assist one another against rebels
• A trade treaty was agreed, but became known as the Intercursus Malus (‘Evil Intercourse’) by the Flemish because it was over-generous to England Further agreements meant that:
• Philip handed over the Yorkist Earl of Suffolk, who had been sheltering in Burgundy, to Henry • A marriage was arranged between Henry (widowed in 1503) and Philip’s sister, Margaret, Dowager Duchess of Savoy. (This came to nothing)
Philip died in September, and the trade treaty, of which Margaret (who became the new Burgundian governor) disapproved, was never implemented - 1507
1. A third treaty reverted to the terms of the first Intercursus Magnus - 1508
1. Henry VII was diplomatically isolated by not being a signatory to the League of Cambrai, which was formed by the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France and the Papacy
Why was it crucial to keep good relations with the Netherlands ?
The bulk of England’s exports went through the ports of the Netherlands, such as Antwerp and Bruges, which came under Burgundy’s jurisdiction.
- It was therefore important for commercial reasons for good relations to be maintained.
Why was Margaret of burgundy such a problem to Henry 7th ?
Who was Margret ?
- She was the widow of the Duke of Burgundy, and still controlled his lands.
- More importantly: she was the sister of Edward IV and Richard III, so she was a key Yorkist figure.
- This made her personally and politically hostile to Henry VII, a Lancastrian, since she wanted to see a Yorkist back on the throne.
Why is Margaret a problem?
- She actively supported Yorkist pretenders, especially Perkin Warbeck, who claimed to be Richard of York (one of the Princes in the Tower).
- She gave him protection and legitimacy, which helped his threat grow.
- She influenced Maximilian, her stepson-in-law, to support Warbeck too.
- This made Maximilian and his son Phillip’s involvement basically an extension of Margaret’s agenda
Therefore - Margaret didn’t just cheer him on — she actively helped him and even got her stepson-in-law, Maximilian, to support him too. Later, when Maximilian’s son Philip took over running Burgundy, he also gave shelter to Warbeck.
This meant Margaret wasn’t just a background figure — she was the driving force behind the Yorkist threat in Burgundy.
Why did relations between Burgundy and England deteriorate and what happened as a result of this ?
How did relations improve ?
Relations between England and Burgundy deteriorated as a result of the hospitality which Maximilian and Philip were offering to Perkin Warbeck.
Due to this ?
Henry gambled that putting an embargo on English trade with Burgundy would ease the matter.
What was the problem which this ?
It brought two of Henry’s foreign policy objectives – securing the dynasty and encouraging trade – into conflict with each other.
- In giving priority to his dynastic interests, Henry showed himself prepared to sacrifice the commercial interests of London and east-coast merchants, which did nothing for his popularity in those parts of the country.
Relations did improve to an extent after Warbeck left Burgundy, and Henry and Philip were able to agree the Intercursus Magnus in 1496 which brought the trade embargo to an end.
Intercursus magnus: the major commercial treaty between England and the Duchy of Burgundy which restored normal trading links between the two
Following the death of Isabella, Queen of Castile, how did Anglo-Burgandian relations become central to Henry’s forget policy ?
What changes did this bring about?
- Anglo-Burgundian relations again became central to Henry’s foreign policy calculations in 1504 following the death of Isabella, Queen of Castile.
- One of the outcomes of the resulting Treaty of Windsor was a new trade agreement, the Intercursus Malus.
- In this, Henry showed the same forceful approach which by this time he was adopting in his domestic financial affairs: he demanded a trade deal which would have given a much stronger trading position to English merchants in the Netherlands had it ever been enforced (in the end, this trade deal was never put into practice).
- Another outcome was that Philip and Maximilian agreed to hand over their Yorkist fugitive, the Earl of Suffolk, whom Henry promptly imprisoned in the Tower.
Henry appeared to have improved both England’s trading position and also the security of the dynasty.
KEY CHRONOLOGY
Relations with Spain
- 1489
1. The Treaty of Medina del Campo agreed a marriage alliance between Catherine of Aragon (Ferdinand and Isabella’s youngest daughter) and Prince Arthur (Henry’s eldest son) - 1501
1. Marriage between Arthur and Catherine took place - 1502
1. Arthur died; Henry (anxious to retain Catherine’s dowry) proposed a new marriage between Catherine and Arthur’s younger brother, Henry; a treaty was signed in 1503 and a marriage planned for 1506, Henry’s 15th birthday - 1504
1. Isabella died; Henry supported the claims of Juana (married to Philip IV) to succeed in Castile. (This was confirmed during their stay in England in 1506) - 1506
1. Philip’s death led Ferdinand to deprive his daughter Juana of her inheritance. The marriage between Catherine and Henry was jeopardised and did not take place until June 1509, after Henry VII’s death
Why did Henry hope to have good relations with Spain, and what treaty enabled this ?
- Ruled over by Ferdinand and his wife Isabella, Spain was a powerful state, with which Henry hoped to develop good relations.
- The Treaty of Medina del Campo in 1489 was an important development for Henry in that it gave him some of the international peace and security to which he aspired:
• the two monarchies offered mutual protection in the event of attack
• they agreed not to harbour rebels or pretenders
• the treaty arranged a marriage alliance between Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine, Princess of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.
What problems were there with the implementation of the treaty between England and Spain in 1489?
There were problems with the implementation of the treaty:
• arrangements for the royal marriage did not go smoothly
• Ferdinand proved reluctant to allow the marriage to go ahead as long as Henry’s dynastic stability remained threatened by Perkin Warbeck
• the two monarchs argued over the size of Catherine’s dowry. The details of the marriage were finally agreed in 1499 and it took place in 1501. However, the death of Arthur in 1502 brought complications to Henry’s relations with Ferdinand:
• Henry immediately suggested that Catherine should marry his second son, Prince Henry, but Ferdinand was reluctant to agree. He had little need for an English alliance and the proposed marriage would require a papal dispensation – which could be arranged but at a price.
• In 1504, Henry lost his enthusiasm for the marriage, when the death of Isabella made Ferdinand a less significant political figure. During the resultant succession struggle in Spain between Ferdinand and Juana (Catherine of Aragon’s sister), Henry chose to support the latter.
• Juana and her husband Philip of Burgundy set sail for Spain in January 1506, but were forced to take refuge in England when their ship was wrecked at sea.
Key Term:
papal dispensation: permission was required from the Pope in order to be exempted from the laws or observances of the Church; it was considered only in special or unusual circumstances
How did Henry secure a stronger relationship between Juana and Philip in 1506 after they wrecked at sea?
Henry was able to take advantage of his guests’ situation.
By the Treaty of Windsor (1506) Henry secured a stronger relationship with Juana and Philip with:
• the Malus (restoring trade relations between England and Burgundy)
• the return of the Earl of Suffolk (further securing Henry’s dynasty)
• a proposed marriage alliance for himself with Philip’s sister, the Archduchess Margaret (aimed at strengthening Henry’s rule after the death of his wife Elizabeth, but this marriage never happened)
• Henry’s recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile (strengthening the couple’s claim to the Spanish throne).
How did Philip of Burgundy’s death, after his arrival in Spain, affect relations with England ?
However, Philip of Burgundy’s death, soon after the couple’s arrival in Spain, proved disastrous for Henry:
• Juana, in her grief, was described by her father Ferdinand as having gone mad.
• This gave Ferdinand the opportunity once more to become regent of Castile.
• This left Henry diplomatically isolated as once again he had been diplomatically outsmarted by a major European monarch.
• Ferdinand ensured that the marriage between Prince Henry and Catherine would not take place in Henry VII’s lifetime (though they did marry once Prince Henry had come to the throne as King Henry VIII).
KEY CHRONOLOGY
Relations with Scotland
- 1485-95
1. Anglo-Scottish relations were tense - 1495-96: turning point
1. Problems arose when king James iV came of age and in 1495 offered hospitality to Perkin Warbeck. Warbeck stayed for two years at the Scottish court, and received not only a pension from the king but also an aristocratic marriage – to the king’s cousin Lady Catherine Gordon.
2. This was already a potential threat to Henry but, to make matters worse, James encouraged Warbeck to cross the border in 1496 with an army. The army was small, spent little time in England, received no support from the people of Northumberland and quickly retreated back over the border when word was received that an English force was making its way north from Newcastle.
3. However, this attempt at an invasion led Henry to raise a larger army to launch an invasion of Scotland. This decision had important political repercussions because it prompted a taxation rebellion the following year. - 1497: The Cornish Rebellion
1. A large-scale rebellion in Cornwall shook Henry. It was evident that it was in the interests of both England and Scotland to secure an immediate truce, which took place at Ayton, a few miles north of the English border stronghold of Berwick-upon-Tweed.
2. England and Scotland made the Truce of Ayton (this became a full peace treaty in 1502) - 1498: onwards
1. Anglo-Scottish relations significantly improved. Because of this improvement James no longer had any diplomatic use for Warbeck, who had become tiresome. Warbeck was executed in 1499. - 1501 - 03:
1. It was agreed that James should marry Henry’s daughter, the Princess Margaret. In 1502 this was sanctioned by a formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, and the marriage took place in 1503. The improvement in relations with Scotland lasted until the end of Henry’s reign. In terms of Anglo-Scottish relations it is evident that Henry had been successful in ensuring the security of the dynasty. - 1503
1. James IV married Henry’s daughter Margaret to seal the treaty
Main facts about Scotland during the reign of Henry VII:
- Scotland was the only country with which England shared a border, and where crossborder lawlessness was a way of life.
- Scotland often worked closely with France as part of the ‘auld alliance’, which was explicitly anti-English.
Key figure:
James IV (1473–1513) succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of 15 in 1488. He was responsible for the invasion of England in 1496, but did not pursue the policy, making peace the following year. He married Henry VII’s daughter, Margaret. He was killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513.
Why was Henry 7ths power in Ireland restricted ?
Henry VII’s power in Ireland only extended as far as the ‘Pale’, the area of land which surrounded Dublin.
Power in the rest of Ireland lay with the descendants of the Anglo-Norman barons who had settled there in the twelfth century, of whom the most important were the Fitzgeralds (or Geraldines) and the Butlers.
Why did Henry 7 fear the Earl of Kildare?
- The dominant figure was the Earl of Kildare (the leader of the
Geraldines), Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1477.
- He was feared by Henry because he had Yorkist sympathies.
- This suspicion was reinforced by Kildare’s support for Lambert Simnel, whom he crowned king of Ireland in 1486.
- He compounded his suspicion in Henry’s eyes by supporting Perkin Warbeck in 1491.
Key figure:
Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl of Kildare (c1456–1513), known as ‘the uncrowned king of Ireland’,
was the leading member of the Irish nobility. Henry became dependent upon Kildare for the maintenance of law and order in Ireland.
How was Henry forced to react due to Kildares actions ?
Kildare’s actions forced Henry into action:
• Instead of relying on the established Irish aristocracy, who were cheap but unreliable, he attempted the more costly approach of rule of the ‘Pale’ through an Englishman, backed by armed force.
• He appointed his infant son Prince Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland and appointed Sir Edward Poynings as his deputy.
What was the significance of appointing Sir Edward Poyings as Deputy Lieutenant of Ireland ?
What was the downside ?
Significance:
Poynings was initially successful in establishing royal authority by means of the threat of force and the use of bribery.
- He reinforced this success by requiring the Irish parliament to pass ‘Poynings’ Law’ in 1495, which laid down that the Irish parliament could pass no law without the prior approval of the English Crown.
- He also attempted to implement English law in Ireland.
Problems?
- This strategy proved too expensive for Henry’s liking, and the financial problems were made worse when Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495 and amassed a force which besieged the town of Waterford.
As a result:
Henry, who was short of money because of the threat of invasion by the Scots, was forced to recall Poynings and once again had to depend on the cheap option of using Kildare as his deputy.
What had Kildare decided to do by 1496?
By this stage in 1496 Kildare had decided that there was no benefit in supporting the Yorkist cause any longer and decided to serve Henry loyally, in the process securing the submission of the various Irish chieftains.
By around 1500 Henry had eventually secured some level of peaceable – and cheap – authority over Ireland, though he was undoubtedly fortunate in that Kildare eventually proved so amenable.
The fact that Kildare was able to use his office to rebuild his family’s fortunes doubtless made him eager to support his former enemy.
Why did it seem that there would be no problems with Henry’s succession before 1502?
Before 1502 it seemed that there would be no problems with the succession to Henry VII.
- In 1486, his wife Elizabeth gave birth to a son, Prince Arthur, and in 1491, to another, Prince Henry. Arthur received the education which was deemed to be fitting for a prince and was set up with his own court at Ludlow in Shropshire.
- Henry 7ths children:
Henry VII had four children that survived childhood: Arthur, Henry, Margaret and Mary.
What occurred in April 1502 that threatened the security of the dynasty ?
Arthur’s unexpected death in April 1502 increased the insecurity of the dynasty.
- The heir to the throne was now the young Prince Henry, which raised the issue of what might happen if the king himself were to die while Henry was still a child.
- The precedent of Edward V was not encouraging.
- Moreover, the issue was complicated by the fact that once again the Yorkist claimant the Earl of Suffolk seemed to be gaining influence.
The dynasty thus depended on Henry VII’s survival until his son was old enough to rule, and his deteriorating health was a continuous cause of concern to many of his key advisers. Henry also recognised the need to dispose of the threat from the Earl of Suffolk.
How did Henry respond to the weakened dynasty threat after Arthur’s death?
- Henry also recognised the need to dispose of the threat from the Earl of Suffolk.
- In this, he was lucky that Juana and Philip of Burgundy were forced to take refuge in England in 1506 as it gave him the opportunity to press Philip of Burgundy and his father Maximilian to hand Suffolk over to him.
Why was their uncertainty among the crowns key followers after the death of Arthur and the increased deterioration of Henry’s health ?
What other fears still persisted ?
Nevertheless, there was still uncertainty amongst Henry’s key followers and much jockeying for position.
- What seems evident is that there was a growing split between those officials who were particularly associated with the Council Learned, especially:
1. Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley.
2. Some of Henry’s other advisers, especially Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell, who were looking to position themselves effectively once Henry’s health finally failed.
There were still fears about Suffolk and his brother Richard de la Pole, and there were also fears that the Duke of Buckingham, a descendant of Edward III, might launch an attempt at seizing the throne.
When was Henry 7th death and what events occurred after ?
Henry’s health deteriorated rapidly from February 1509 and he died on the evening of 21 April.
- No announcement was made at first of the king’s death. Instead, Bishop Fox and his trusted friend within the Privy Chamber, Richard Weston, aided and abetted by Lady Margaret Beaufort, sought to manipulate the terms of the succession to their advantage and to position themselves around the new king.
- Most importantly, Empson and Dudley were excluded from their deliberations.
- The king’s death was announced on 23 April.
- On the following day the process of rounding up potential troublemakers began. Among those arrested were Empson and Dudley.
There was a clear message, therefore, that the new regime would be different from the old.
Why were Royal marriage alliances so significant for foreign policy and succession during Henry 7th reign?
- Marriage alliances were an essential part of international diplomacy during this period.
- All monarchs sought marriage alliances in order to enhance their power and influence.
- In addition, it was important for Henry VII to seek appropriate marriage alliances in order to help bring about dynastic security.
Royal marriages: Spain.
- He planned to maintain an alliance with Spain by securing a marriage alliance between Catherine of Aragon and his eldest son and heir, Arthur.
- Although his plans were dashed when Arthur suddenly died, Henry VII quickly sought another marriage between Catherine and his younger son, Prince Henry, instead.
Royal Marriages: Scotland
- He arranged for his oldest daughter, Margaret, to be married to James IV of Scotland, which strengthened alliances with Scotland during his reign and weakened Perkin Warbeck’s threat to the Tudor throne.
Royal marriages: France
- Henry’s younger daughter Mary would later, during Henry VIII’s reign, marry the much older King of France, Louis XII, in order to secure peaceful relations between the two countries.
Henrys own marriage:
1. Henry VII tried also, albeit unsuccessfully, to re-enter the marriage market after the death of his wife, Elizabeth.
2. Possible alliances with Castile, Aragon, France and the Holy Roman Empire were considered, but came to nothing partly because the princesses concerned proved reluctant to marry Henry and partly because Henry himself gradually lost enthusiasm for the prospect of remarriage.
Henry’s foreign policy summary:
- Foreign policy and the succession were inextricably linked.
- Royal marriage proposals were a normal part of diplomatic activity as monarchs attempted to use their family members as pawns in the game of diplomatic chess. It was a game in which Henry had mixed fortunes.
As Christine Carpenter has pointed out, the death of Henry VII’s own queen, Elizabeth, in 1503, after the loss of his first son Arthur, made Henry’s dynastic security appear significantly weakened.
Successes:
- He faced the need first to secure the dynasty, knowing full well that his hold on royal power was tenuous, and had to manipulate the international situation to enhance his security.
At this he was largely successful. Having initially secured his dynasty, he became more ambitious and broadly successful in his foreign policy, in the main avoiding expensive foreign wars.
Potential failures:
It should not, however, be thought that his foreign policy was consistently successful. Henry, more than most monarchs, was aware of the influence that luck could play in diplomatic affairs.
In that context, Henry was wrong-footed by the death of Isabella of Castile in 1504 and for a time he found himself dangerously isolated. On the whole, however, he responded skilfully to the changing circumstances in which he found himself.
