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Pharmacy Year 3 > Endocrinology > Flashcards

Endocrinology Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the endocrine response

A

Hormone released and has an effect on distant target cells

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2
Q

Describe the paracrine response

A

Hormone released and acts on adjacent cells

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3
Q

Describe the autocrine response

A

Hormone released and hits target cells but loops back to the secretory cells and binds to targets there

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4
Q

Give examples protein hormones

A 
Oxytocin
ADH
Growth hormone (somatotropin)
Prolactin
FSH and TSH
Insulin
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5
Q

Where are oxytocin and ADH produced?

A

Posterior pituitary

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6
Q

How do oxytocin and ADH differ?

A

Their amino acid sequence differ at 2 positions

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7
Q

Describe the functions of growth hormone

A

Stimulate growth, cell division and regeneration.

It is a mitogen (stimulates mitosis) and is specific to only certain kinds of cells

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8
Q

Describe the characteristics of prolactin

A

198 protein residue closely related to GH and Placental lactose with properties resembling a hormone and cytokine

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9
Q

Where are FSH and TH produced?

A

Anterior pituitary

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10
Q

What is the major drug delivery issue for peptide and protein pharmaceuticals?

A

Proteins get digested

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11
Q

Which hormones are derived from tyrosine?

A 
Dopamine
Noradrenaline
Adrenaline
T3 
T4
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12
Q

Which hormones are derived from tryptophan?

A

Melatonin

- derived from dietary tryptophan via serotonin

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13
Q

Give examples of steroid hormones

A

Progesterone
Testosterone
Oestradiol
Cortisol

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14
Q

What is structurally similar in steroid hormones?

A

All have the same basic C17, 4 ring structure

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15
Q

What are the 2 kinds of endocrine organs? What are their functions?

A

Primary: function is the secretion of hormones
Secondary: non-endocrine primary function

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16
Q

Where are the hypothalamus, pituitary and pineal glands located?

A

Hypothalamus: below the thalamus above the brain stem

Pituitary gland: sits in a small bone cavity below the hypothalamus

Pineal gland: epithalamus, between 2 hemispheres in the centre of the brain

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17
Q

What kind of hormones do the hypothalamus and pituitary produce?

A

Regulatory hormones which control the function of other endocrine glands

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18
Q

Which hormone does the pineal gland produce?

A

Melatonin - helps to regulate the circadian rhythm

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19
Q

Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?

A

In the neck region just below the larynx, sits about and around the trachea

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20
Q

Which hormones do the thyroid glands produce?

A

T3 and T4 - they help to regulate metabolism

Calcitonin

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21
Q

Which hormone does the parathyroid gland produce? When are hormones released?

A

Parathyroid hormone

They release hormones when the biological signal goes down [Ca] needs to drop for the hormone to be released.

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22
Q

Where is the thymus located?

A

Close to the heart

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23
Q

Which hormone does the thymus produce and what is its function?

A

Thymosin

Stimulates the activity of T cells and antibody production in the bone marrow

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24
Q

Why is the thymus critical for immune response?

A

T cells mature in the thymus

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25
Q

Which hormones do the islets of Langerhans produce?

A 
Insulin
Glucagon
Somatostatin (GH)
Ghrelin
Pancreatic polypeptide
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26
Q

Define hyposecretion in terms of endocrine disorders

A

A gland doesn’t produce enough of its hormones

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27
Q

Define hypersecretion in terms of endocrine disorders

A

A gland produces too much of its hormones

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28
Q

Give examples of diseases caused by hypersecretion of hormones

A

Hyperinsulinsim
Cushing’s
Grave’s disease

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29
Q

Give examples of diseases caused by hyposecretion of hormones

A

Diabetes
Hypothyroidism
Addision’s disease

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30
Q

Give examples of tumours that may develop in the endocrine glands

A

Multiple endocrine neoplasia

Pheochromocytoma - too much adrenaline in the blood

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31
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located and what are responsible for releasing?

A

There are 2 at the top of the kidney

Release hormones in response to stress

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32
Q

What are the 2 distinct regions of the adrenal glands?

A

Central medulla

Outer cortex

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33
Q

What kind of effect does cortisol have on steroid synthesis?

A

Negative effect

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34
Q

Which part of the brain is responsible for detection of stressful situations?

A

Hypothalamus

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35
Q

What happens when cortisol is released in the HPA axis?

A

It inhibits the anterior pituitary to inhibit further release of ACTH and also inhibits further release of CRH from the hypothalamus

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36
Q

Which hormones do the ovaries secrete?

A

Steroids: oestrogen and progesterone

Protein hormones: inhibit and relaxin

37
Q

Which hormones regulate the secretion of ovarian hormones?

A

FSH and LH

38
Q

Which hormones do the testes produce?

A

Steroid: androgens and testosterone

39
Q

Describe the function of the placenta

A

Links a developing foetus to the maternal uterine wall. It facilitates nutrient uptake, removal of waste products and gas exchange through the maternal blood supply

40
Q

Which hormones does the placenta produce?

A

Steroid: oestrogen and progesterone
Protein: hCG, CRH, placental lactogenic

41
Q

Describe the function of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

Stimulates the kidney to secrete more salt, this decreases excess blood volume, high BP and high blood sodium concentration

42
Q

What is the approximate number of hormones in the GI tract?

A

30

43
Q

Which hormones do juxtaglomerular cells secrete? And what is the function of these hormones?

A

Renin - signals adrenal cortex to secrete aldosteron

Erythropoietin - signals bone marrow to increase RBC production

44
Q

Describe the function of parvicellular neurons in the hypothalamus

A

Secrete regulatory hormones into the bloodstrream which travel through the portal system to the anterior pituitary lobe - this triggers the secretion of other hormones

45
Q

How does the hypothalamus control the anterior pituitary?

A

By secreting regulatory hormones

46
Q

What is TRH and what is its function?

A

Thryotropin releasing hormone
It has a positive tropic effect on TSH from the anterior pituitary, and it acts on the thyroid gland to increase section of thyroid hormones

47
Q

What is CRH and what is its function?

A

Corticotropin releasing hormone
Positive effect on anterior to increase production of ACTH which exerts effect on the adrenal cortex of the kidney to increase production of steroid hormones

48
Q

What is GHRH and what is its function?

A

Growth hormone releasing hormone
Positive tropic effect, increased production of growth hormone. GH has an effect on growth of many tissues in the body and also influences secretion of insulin growth factors

49
Q

What is GHIH and what is its function?

A

Growth hormone inhibiting hormone

Has a negative tropic effect. Helps to regulate GH secretion by reducing GH secretion

50
Q

What is GnRH and what is its function?

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Has a positive tropic effect on cells to increase secretion of Fish and LH which have a physiological effect on gonads for the production of sex hormones

51
Q

Define topic in terms of hormones

A

Act on another endocrine gland to produce effector hormones

52
Q

Define non-tropic in terms of hormones

A

Doesn’t involved another endocrine gland - they act directly on other tissues

53
Q

Give examples of tropic hormones

A

FSH and LH
ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)
TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)

54
Q

Describe the function of TSH

A

Synthesised, stored and secreted from thryrotopes

Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones

55
Q

Describe the function of ACTH

A

Synthesised, stored and secreted from corticotropes

Stimulates the adrenal gland cortex to produce corticosteroids such as aldosterone and cortisol

56
Q

Give examples of non-tropic hormones

A

Prolactin

Growth hormone

57
Q

Describe the structure and function of prolactin

A

198 AA single chain polypeptide
Synthesised, stored and secreted by lactoptropes
Exerts effects on breast tissue for lactation
Dysregulation causes issues

58
Q

What is the post common tumour of the pituitary? How is it treated?

A

Prolactinoma
Treated with dopamine and receptor agonists
- Bromocriptine and cabergoline

59
Q

Describe the structure and function of growth hormone

A

191 AA single chain polypeptide
Synthesised, stored and secreted by somatropes
Stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration of specific cells

60
Q

What does hypersecretion of growth hormone cause?

A

Gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults

61
Q

How is acromegaly treated?

A

Somatostatin

Regulates the production of GH and affects cell proliferation and growth via somatostatin receptors

62
Q

Which hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Oxytocin

Vasopressin (ADH)

63
Q

Describe the function of oxytocin

A

Stimulation of milk ejection

Stimulation of uterine smooth muscle contraction at birth
During child birth, baby presses down on cervix, pressure activates sensory nerves which causes a reflex arch back up to hypothalamus, oxytocin is released in waves as a result of the feedback, as it diffuses down to uterus and binds to receptors on uterine muscle it causes contraction - pushing baby’s head down further and stimulate sensory nerves more, this cycle continues until baby is pushed out.

64
Q

What is pitocin used for? What needs to be monitored when its used?

A

Used to advance child birth
Need to monitor maternal BP, pulse changes and hypertonicity of the uterus
Need to monitor FHR and rhythm

65
Q

Describe the function of vasopressin

A

Binds to V2 receptors on cells in the collecting ducts and on the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney

ontrols synthesis of aquaporins (2) which is inserted on the apical membrane of kidney cells - allows water to be reabsorbed from the kidney tubule.

66
Q

What happens in the absence of vasopressin?

A

The collecting ducts are impermeable to water, this flows out as urine

67
Q

What is diabetes insipidus?

A

Excessive urine production

68
Q

Which cells secrete melatonin?

A

Pinealocytes

69
Q

How is production of melatonin controlled?

A

Production is permitted by darkness and inhibited by light

70
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

On top of the kidneys

71
Q

What are the different parts of the adrenal glands?

A

Capsule
Cortex
Adrenal medulla

72
Q

What are the 3 different zones in the cortex and what is produced there?

A

Zona glomerulosa: mineralcorticoids e.g. aldosterone
Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids e.g. cortisol
Zona reticularis: androgens

73
Q

Are steroids stored?

A

No - they are synthesised from cholesterol on demand

74
Q

What are the physiological functions of adrenal steroids?

A

Glucocorticoids: metabolic effects, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive

Mineralcorticoids: water and electrolyte balance

Adrenal androgens: maturation and development

75
Q

Describe the mechanism of action of corticosteroids

A

Corticosteroid binding globulin bind 90% of cortisol and 60% of aldosterone

Transcortin doesn’t bind synthetic steroids

Steroids are carried by carrier proteins in the body. Steroids interact with receptors on the cell membrane and are picked up by cytoplasmic receptors inside

Interact with the nucleus where they initiate gene transcription and translation.

Steroids take time to act as they need new proteins to be made from cells

76
Q

Describe the mechanism of action of mineralcorticoids

A

MC receptors have limited tissue distribution

MCs cause Na+ uptake which leads to fluid resorption and K+ loss.

ATII releases aldosterone from the adrenal cortex, this works on the kidneys and allows reabsorption of Na+ so that water can enter by osmosis

77
Q

What properties to synthetic steroids have?

A

Varying durations of actions

Different split of activities and potencies

78
Q

What are the different durations of actions that synthetic steroids can have?

A

Short acting: T1/2 = 8-12hours
Intermediate: T1/2 = 12-36hours
Long acting: T1/2 = 36-72hours

79
Q

What are the different combinations of synthetic steroids? Give examples

A

Mixed glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid activity
- prednisolone

Pure glucocorticoid
- dexamethasone, betaethasone, beclometasone

Mainly mineralocorticoid
- fludrocortisone

80
Q

How are steroids used in replacement therapy in adrenal failure?

A

Addisions Disease
- hydrocortisone (GC) with or without fludrocortisone

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- dexamethasone, betamethasone

81
Q

Describe congenital adrenal hyperplasia

A

There is a fault in steroidogensis pathway, overproduction of androgens, limited / no cortisol negative feedback and ACTH output is raised.

82
Q

How are steroid used as anti-inflammatory’s and immunosuppressants?

A

They reduce mediators of inflammation and immune responses including prostaglandin cytokines, NO, IgG

83
Q

Which steroids are used as anti-inflammatory’s and immunosuppressants?

A 
Hydrocortiosone
Prednisolone
Beclomethasone
Dexamethasone
Budesonide
84
Q

What are the side effects and problems of steroid use?

A

Excessive use of GC leads to inappropriate metabolic effects on the body

  • Drug induced Cushing’s syndrome
  • Oesteoporosis

Increased risk of infection

85
Q

Which drugs are used to target steroidogenesis?

A

Aminoglutethimide
Metrypone
Tetracostide

86
Q

Describe the MoA of aminoglutethimide and give its uses

A

Inhibits enzymes and reduces steroid output

Uses: Cushing’s, postmenopausal breast cancer and prostate cancer

87
Q

Describe the MoA of metryapone and give its uses

A

Inhibits 11 beta-hydroxylase and reduces GC, MC synthesis

Uses: Cushing’s and hyperaldosteronism

88
Q

Describe the MoA of tetracostide and give its uses

A

Stimulates synthesis and release of adrenal hormones

Used to diagnose adrenal cortical insufficiency

Pharmacy Year 3 (11 decks)

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