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PSYC 304 > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

what was the first experiment on hormones? what was the conclusion from this study?

A

Berthold, 1849 - examined a rooster under three conditions
1. control - grows up like a normal rooster
2. remove testicles - grows up more like a hen
3. remove testicles and re-implant testicle from another animal into the abdomen - grows up like a normal rooster
- we concluded that the testicles release some sort of chemical messenger that travels through the blood to reach its targets
- testes make a “secretory blood-borne chemical”
- when group 2 animals grew up, implanting a testicle made no significant difference
- suggests hormones have organizational (appearance) and activational (behavioural) effects

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2
Q

how and where are hormones released?

A
  • released primarily by glands (but also other tissues)
  • released primarly into the bloodstream (but also locally)
  • released primarily by animals (but also plants)
    exocrine glands - release fluids outside the body
    endocrine glands - release hormones inside of the body
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3
Q

what are some cells that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream?

A
  • neurocrine - neural communication, when neurons release neurotransmitters
  • endocrine - release hormones into the blood stream to get to the target
    • can’t target specific cells like neurons
  • autocrine - cells that release a signal to themselves
    • create a negative feedback loop to reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released
  • paracrine - chemical message is released to cells that are close, strongest affects are on closest cells
  • pheromone - within species communication through secretion of a hormone outside the body
  • allomone - different species communicating through secretion of a hormone outside the body
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4
Q

what are the principles of hormone function?

A
  • slow acting, gradual effects
    • effect could take hours or weeks after the hormone enters the blood stream
  • changes the probability or intensity of behaviours changes but not whether they happen or not
  • behaviour and hormone release are reciprocal
  • hormone secretion happens in bursts or pulses at specific times each day or each month
  • hormones can interact and can create unique effects that neither hormone can do on their own
  • hormones need receptors in order to have their effect
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5
Q

what is multiplicity of action in hormones?

A
  • multiplicity of action - the same hormone can affect different target tissues in different ways
    • this is based on what the hormone is binding to
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6
Q

what does the hypothalamus do? what types of cells does it have?

A
  • hypothalamus is the main junction between the nervous and endocrine systems
  • hypothalamus contains neuroendocrine cells (neurosecretory cells)
    • look like neurons, but they synapse onto the blood stream
  • same chemical message but travelling in different ways
  • some hormones are also neurotransmitter
    • ex. epinephrine and norepinephrine
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7
Q

what are the different types of hormones?

A
  • peptides, amines, and steroids
  • peptides and amines are also neurotransmitter categories
  • amines are small, like amino acids
  • peptides are the large category of neurotransmitters
    • they are long strings of amino acids
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8
Q

how do different types of hormones get across the cell membrane?

A
  • amines and peptides are mostly stuck outside of the cells
    • some amines have the ability to cross the plasma membrane
  • steroid hormones are especially good at crossing the plasma membrane
    • structure is similar to cholesterol
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9
Q

what are the different types of hormone receptor types?

A

at the membrane (for all three types)
- GCPRs, G-protein coupled receptors
- work faster
- they are on the plasma membrane, so they are useful for amines and peptides
- don’t have to have all receptors at the membrane since some hormones can travel through the membrane

intracellular - for steroids and some amines
- steroid receptors are inside the cell
- work much slower
- usually near the nucleus
- these receptors are transcription factors (change the expression of genes)
- can have GCPRs as well

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10
Q

what are methods in measuring hormones and receptor types?

A

radioimmunoassay, autoradiography, immunohistochemistry/immunocytochemistry, in situ hybridization

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11
Q

what is radioimmunoassay?

A
  • radioimmunoassay - used to measure hormone levels in the blood
    • take blood sample and increasingly add antibodies that bind to the hormone
    • tells us the amount of the hormone in the blood
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12
Q

what is autoradiography?

A
  • autoradiography - used to look for brain area affected by the hormone
    • inject a radioactive hormone and watch it bind to targets
    • put photo paper onto the slice, radioactive parts are shown on the paper
    • shows where hormone receptors are in the brain
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13
Q

what are immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry?

A
  • used to look for brain area affected by the hormone
    • create an antibody for the hormone receptor
    • shows where the receptors are, similar to autoradiography
    • immunohistochemistry - looking at a section of tissue
    • immunocytochemistry - looking at levels of cells growing in a petri dish
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14
Q

what is in situ hybridization?

A
  • shows us where the hormone receptor RNA is and when more hormone receptor RNA is expressed
    • take a complementary strand of DNA or RNA and add a fluorescent tag to it
    • shows us activation of transcription or which cells have the protein itself
      • the protein - hormone receptor RNA
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15
Q

what are the negative feedback mechanisms for hormones?

A

autocrine feedback, target cell feedback, brain regulation, brain and pituitary regulation

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16
Q

what is autocrine feedback?

A
  • hormone is released and makes it to target cell, but some will bind to receptors on the endocrine cell that released it
    • causes an inhibitory effect
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17
Q

what is target cell feedback?

A
  • releasing hormone results in a change in the intensity or probability of behaviours (biological response)
    • biological response changes hormone release from endocrine cells
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18
Q

what is brain regulation (negative feedback mechanism)?

A
  • releasing hormone results in a change in the intensity or probability of behaviours (biological response)
    • biological response changes activity in the hypothalamus
    • change in hypothalamus affects endocrine cells that release hormones
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19
Q

what is the pituitary gland?

A
  • the other side of the nervous system/endocrine intersection
    • nervous system side - hypothalamus, which affects the pituitary gland
    • endocrine side - pituitary gland
  • the infundibulum connects the hypothalamus and pituitary
  • the pituitary has anterior and posterior divisions that play separate roles
    • they originate from different tissues and release different hormones
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20
Q

what is the posterior pituitary?

A
  • no dedicated endocrine cells in the posterior, just axons from the hypothalamus
    • hypothalamus has neuroendocrine cells in paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei
  • axons travel down infundibulum to capillaries in the posterior pituitary (median eminence)
    • these hypothalamus axons terminate on capillaries
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21
Q

what hormones does the posterior pituitary release?

A
  • axons from hypothalamus neuroendocrine cells that are in the post. pituitary release oxytocin and vasopressin/anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) into blood
    • oxytocin: stimulate uterine contractions in pregnancy; milk letdown reflex (ejects milk from milk ducts)
      • can be learned by the sound of baby’s crying
    • ADH: reduces urination to conserves water when dehydrated or have too much sodium
      • also blood vessel constriction
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22
Q

how does alcohol impact ADH and dehydration?

A
  • alcohol inhibits L-type calcium channels, which inhibits ADH release (which usually reduces urination)
    • alcohol makes you urinate more and makes you more dehydrated
23
Q

what is the anterior pituitary? how does it relate to the hypothalamus?

A
  • there are dedicated endocrine cells that release hormones
  • hypothalamus release releasing hormones, that trigger activity in the anterior pituitary
    • releasing hormones carried (only a few mm) via hypophyseal portal veins
  • when releasing hormones arrive, anterior pituitary cells release tropic hormones
  • this controls the release of many other hormones
    • tropic hormones travel to glands and cause further hormone release
  • anterior pituitary has its own hormone-producing cells
24
Q

what is the process of hormone activation?

A

Releasing hormones (HTh) → tropic hormones (anterior pituitary gland) → hormones (gland) → target

25
Q

what is the corticotropin releasing hormone? what tropic hormone does it lead to? what is the tropic hormone’s main target?

A
  • corticotropin releasing hormone released from neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus
  • causes adrenocortico tropic hormone (ATH) to be released, whose main target is the adrenal cortex
  • adrenal cortex releases corticosteroids
  • related to stress, circadian rhythms, arousal
26
Q

what is the thyrotropin releasing hormone? what tropic hormone does it lead to? what is the tropic hormone’s main target?

A
  • thyrotropin releasing hormone released from neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus
  • causes thyroid-stimulating hormone to be released, whose main target is the thyroid
  • thyroid releases thyroid hormones
  • related to changes in metabolism
27
Q

what are the gonadotropin releasing/inhibiting hormones? what tropic hormone do they lead to? what is the tropic hormone’s main target?

A
  • gonadotropin releasing/inhibiting hormones released from neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus
  • cause lutenizing hormone/follicle-stimulating hormone to be released, whose main target is the gonads (testes/ovaries)
  • gonads release/don’t release androgens or estrogen/progestin hormones
28
Q

what is the prolactin releasing peptide/prolactin inhibiting factor ? what tropic hormone does it lead to? what is the tropic hormone’s main target?

A
  • prolactin releasing peptide/prolactin inhibiting factor (dopamine) released from neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus
  • cause prolactin to be released, whose main target is the mammary glands
  • causes milk production, also related to parental behaviour
29
Q

what are somatocrinin and somastatin? what tropic hormone does it lead to? what is the tropic hormone’s main target?

A
  • somatocrinin (stimulates) or somastatin (inhibits) released from neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus
  • cause growth hormone to be released, whose main target is bones
30
Q

what are the 6 main tropic hormones?

A
  1. adrenocortico-tropic hormone
  2. thyroid-stimulating hormone
  3. lutenizing hormone
  4. folicle-stimulating hormone
  5. prolactin
  6. growth hormone
31
Q

what is the adrenal gland composed of?

A
  • adrenal cortex - outer layer, is 80%
    • gets input from anterior pituitary
  • adrenal medulla - inner layer, is 20%
    • gets inputs from autonomic nervous system, sympathetic nervous system
  • adrenal cortex releases steroid hormones
32
Q

what hormones does the adrenal cortex release?

A

adrenal cortex releases steroid hormones
- glucocorticoids (cortisol) - related to stress and circadian rhythms, increase blood glucose and breakdown of proteins
- mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - causes salt and water retention
- sex steroids (androstenedione) - influence body hair patterns for male vs. females

  • synthesized on demand via Adrenocorticotropic Hormone because steroids easily move past blood brain barrier and so they can’t be floating around all the time
33
Q

what hormones does the adrenal medulla release?

A
  • adrenal medulla releases amine hormones (catecholamines)
    • epinephrine
    • norepinephrine
34
Q

what hormones does the thyroid gland release? what is their role?

A
  • releases thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine and calcitonin
  • they are amines but act like steroids
    • can cross through the membranes but are amines
    • have intracellular receptors as well as receptors on the membrane
  • generally regulate growth and metabolism, also an general activating affect on the nervous system
35
Q

what does the thyroid gland require?

A
  • only place in the body that requires iodine
    • this is why we are recommended to eat iodized table salt
  • lack of iodine leads to hypothyroidism
36
Q

what is the pineal gland? what does it release? what is the function?

A
  • not a target of the pituitary, unlike the adrenal and thyroid
  • some call it a third eye (eye type spot on some animals) has photo receptors to measure days and seasons, not conscious sight
  • releases melatonin in relation to the amount of light we are exposed
    • more is released at night
  • receives inputs from sympathetic nervous system
37
Q

how does melatonin affect animals?

A
  • since it can help measure seasons, there is a relationship between melatonin release and the gonads in some animals
    • as melatonin release goes up, gonadotropin releasing hormones go down
    • which means that in dark seasons, there is lots of melatonin release, which shrinks the gonads of some animals
38
Q

what are the gonads? what is the process of hormone release?

A
  • there are two compartments in male and female gonads
    1. for sex hormone production
    2. for gamete production
  • hypothalamus released GnRH or GnIH →
    • anterior pituitary release FSH and LH →
      • which cause changes to the gonads
  • kisspeptin stimulates GnRH, especially released in the onset of puberty
39
Q

for both the testes and ovaries, what are the parts for sex hormone production and for gamete production?

A

Testes
- sertoli cells produce sperm
- leydig cells create androgens (testosterone)

Ovaries
- ova are mature gametes
- steroid hormones (progestins)

40
Q

what do hormones mainly effect?

A

hormones are important in determining our appearance and projection of development (puberty)

41
Q

what is an example of how behaviour can influence hormones?

A
  • psychosocial dwarfism - isolation from parents or neglect (high levels of stress in childhood) inhibits growth hormone released
  • when removed from the stressful environment, develop returns to normal
42
Q

why is it hard to tell if hormones are determining behaviour?

A
  • cortex supersedes many older controls for behaviour
    • makes it harder to determine the aspects of behaviour affected by hormones
  • most vigorous responses are observed in animal models
  • behaviour also influences hormones
43
Q

what happens when we give rats an injection of oxytocin?

A

exogenous oxytocin in rats - rats spend more time touching each other

44
Q

what is the ventral pallidum? how does it relate to oxytocin and vasopressin?

A
  • ventral pallidum - main target of the nucleus accumbens and is related to motivation and socialization
  • prairie voles are monogamous animals
    • the females have a high density of oxytocin receptors in the ventral pallidum
    • the males have a high density of vasopressin receptors in the ventral pallidum
  • meadow voles are a similar species, but are not monogamous
    • both males and females have lower densities of oxytocin and vasopressin receptors
  • high oxytocin and vasopressin receptor density in the ventral pallidum is associated with monogamous behavior and social bonding
45
Q

what happens when we remove the gene for oxytocin in rats?

A

oxytocin knock-outs in mice - rats display social amnesia, don’t recognize mice that they’ve met before

46
Q

is oxytocin the love molecule?

A
  • no, the story of oxytocin as a love molecule is more complicated than we thought
  • we have helped social anxiety of mice by blocking oxytocin receptors
    • blocking oxytocin makes them more social when they’re stressed out
  • there is a relationship between people’s childhood history, cocaine addiction, and oxytocin
47
Q

how has oxytocin been seen to increase group biases?

A
  • people injected with oxytocin were less likely to sacrifice a member of their in-group in the trolley problem
  • also more likely to sacrifice a member outside of the group
  • only builds “love” towards people who they already have a bias towards
48
Q

how has oxytocin been seen to increase a propensity for revenge?

A
  • in groups where revenge is activated, their levels of oxytocin in their saliva is higher
  • increasing the likelihood of revenge also relates to higher levels of oxytocin release
49
Q

do pheromones actually influence behaviour?

A
  • pheromones are chemical messages that are released that elicit hormonal changes in other individuals within the same species
  • in non-human animals, pheromones do affect behaviour via the vomeronasal organ (VNO)
    • they have unique receptors to the olfactory organ
  • in humans, there is a VNO but its related genes for pheromone receptors are basically non-existent
50
Q

in what ways have we seen that pheromones influence behaviour in humans?

A
  • putative human pheromone effects often don’t replicate
    • McClintock’s effect - women’s menstrual cycles sync up over time
    • men’s sweat - samples of men’s armpit sweat was taken and women were asked to smell it, and were asked to rate the smells
    • rated some smells higher than others, those that belong to people who had a complimentary immune system
51
Q

what is the dual pathway for stress?

A
  1. HPA axis - hypothalamus → anterior pituitary → adrenal cortex (releases cortisol)
  2. sympathetic nervous system - adrenal medulla releases norepinephrine and epinephrine
52
Q

how does the hippocampus affect the HPA axis?

A
  • when we are resilient, the hippocampus inhibits the HPA axis, it provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus
  • under chronic stress conditions, the hippocampus is damaged, dendrites diminish, it shrinks
    • less negative feedback on the hypothalamus, more stress
53
Q

what study showed that we interpret the stress response and give it meaning?

A
  • schacter and singer - gave participants a “new vitamin” (epinephrine), and put them in a room with someone else
    • the other person in the room was either joyful or grumpy
    • the person in the room with the grumpy person interpreted the stress as annoyance
    • the person in the room with the joyful person interpreted the stress as happiness

PSYC 304 (7 decks)

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